Blogs

Ancient DNA and Human Evolution

• Started with Egyptian mummies, looking at tissues

• Cloned DNA from mummies, PCR made this possible

• Ancient DNA carries modifications, degraded to short sections, can be contaminated and polluted with other DNA

• Studying cave bears provided insights to neanderthals

• Total replacement vs assimilation theories

• First mitochondrial dna share dabout 0.5 mya

• There is no mtDNA remaining from neanderthals today in humans

• Library based techniques can be amplified and immortalized to construct genome

• Found neanderthals bones in Vindija Cave, Croatia

• DNA extract is a mixture of microbial DNA deanimated DNA and contamination

• Focused on C-T changes, Deanimated DNA

• Europeans should share more variants with Neanderthals than Africans

• About half of the Neanderthal genome is available in people that live today

• Denisovans contribute DNA in mainland Asia

• “Leaky Replacement” Genetic replacement and some contribution

• People that live in Europe today share more with the genome from Croatia

• Direct evidence of Neanderthal mixing in Europe with mandible

• A risk variant for type 2 Diabetes came from Neanderthals, possible adaptation to starvation

• High altitude adaptation in Tibet came from Neanderthals

• DNA can be obtained from archaeological sediments

• There are some functions that are unique to modern humans

• There are about 30,000 single nucleotide changes that are fixed in present day humans

• Humans have less GMP, AMP, Guanine and Adenine in brain

• Humanized mice have decreased ADSL activity

To a 10-mL round-bottomed flask (RBF), propanoic acid (0.823 mL), 1-propanol (0.973 mL) and concentrated sulfuric acid (4 drops) was added. Contents were thoroughly mixed and permitted to gently reflux for 15 minutes.  Apparatus was then tipped while ensuring lower water layer remained in the side arm. Reflux was resumed for another 15 minutes. After having had allowed it to reflux for an additional 15 minutes, total of 45 minutes, the solution was permitted to cool. At this time, the solution was a light tan color. Entire contents in side arm were dumped back into RBF. After transferring contents into new tube, the solution was washed with water (1 mL), two times with saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate (1 mL), and then with saturated aqueous sodium chloride (1 mL). 

During this experiment, 1-propanol was reacted with propanoic acid using acidic conditions and the n-propyl propanoate was obtained in 25.98% yield. The product was light tan color with a pineapple mixed with acetone aroma. The sulfuric acid, the catalyst was used to speed up the reaction but did not affect the percent yield. The IR spectroscopy was analyzed and it showed that water was still present in my product since above the 3000 cm^-1 there are large absorptions, indicating there are O-H containing impurities. The peak at around 1700 cm^-1 is due to C=O stretching vibrations of a carbonyl C=O bond. The stretch from 2968.45 cm^-1  to 2881.65 cm^-1  illustrates the carbon and hydrogen bond. The two peaks around of range of 1000 cm^-1 to 1200 cm^-1 where 1188.15 cm^-1 and 1083.99 cm^-1 are located are due to C-O stretching vibrations of C-O bonds, thereby concluding the purity of ester.  

MiR-128 plays a role in modulating chemotherapeutic sensitivity in cancer stem cells by targeting Bmi-1 and Musashi-1, and when MiR-128 expression is lowered in cancer tissue it involves with chemotherapeutic resistance [19] BMI1 is a proto-oncogene and a part of the polycomb group complex. It plays a role in DNA damage repair and is a factor in resistance to chemotherapies [23]. On the other hand, Musashi-1 is an RNA binding protein controlling expression of target RNAs [24]. With the use of BRM270 it will lead to an increase in the expression of  miR-128 by 2-3 folds in a lung adenocarcinoma cell like A549. It basically blocks activation of NF-kB and this leads to inhibiting miR-21 expression which is involved in resistance to chemotherapeutic agents like gefitinib and this will then result in lowering proliferation in A549 cells [19].

Bv8 is also known as Prok2 which stands for Prokineticin 2 and is known to be expressed in bone marrow. Bv8 is expressed in Cd11b+Gr1+ cells and it controls mobilization of these cells from the bone marrow during the formation of tumors. Bv8 is also involved in promoting angiogenesis . The Prok2 signaling pathway is involved in regulating a diverse set of biological process through a variety of intracellular signaling pathways like calcium mobilization

Nutmeg (1.029 g) tert-butyl methyl ether (3 mL, 25.18 mmol) and was added in a 10 mL round bottomed flask and boiled for 10 minutes. The mixture was cooled for 3 minutes and filtered in a micro-scale filtration system pipet-ful at a time. After this was completed, tert-butyl methyl ether (2 mL, 16.79 mmol) was added to the same round bottomed flask and it was then warmed, left to settle, and filtered. The filtered solution was then dried to yield the crude product (0.109 g, 10.9%). Acetone (10 mL, 0.136 mmol) was added to the flask and the solution was recrystallized. The solution was then collected via suction filtration to yield the trimyristin of the first recrystallization (0.092 g, 8.94%). A second recrystallization was performed on the trimyristin (0.010 g, 0.972%).

The species of grasses and weeds that inhabit the ground and turf people walk on often go by unnoticed. In this experiment, we propose to study the diversity and richness of these species and figure out what variables play a major role in changing the diversity and richness. In order for the project to be compliant with eight different groups collecting data, we came up with eight different variables. These variables include: soil pH, amounts of sunlight, amounts of foot traffic and nearby vehicular traffic, and elevation in relation to water runoff. In addition to that, other variables groups could study are: frequency the area is mowed, how recently the grass was planted, and the grass’s proximity to a body of water.

According to the paper, Copidosoma develops much differently than the Fruit fly.  This is due to Copidosoma using regulatory development, which is the same mechanism by which vertebrates develop.  This type of development is characterized by conditional specification resulting in tissues developing due to induction by neighboring tissues.  One Copidosoma egg gives rise to thousands of embryos and the VASA protein defines the germ line cells of reproducing individuals.  The ablation of one cell from a Copidosoma embryo (only if it is not the VASA containing cell) still results in formation of a complete larva. The Fruit fly, on the other hand, uses mosaic development characterized by syncytial specification resulting in reliance on maternal determinants to signal cell differentiation.  The ablation of one cell from a fruit fly embryo at the two-cell stage would result in only half a larva. 

The choice of the German Shepherd as a breed of dog to receive the vaccine and be saved from extinction is the most logical and beneficial choice for mankind. German Shepherds have served as protectors and companions of humans for centuries, and have proven to be valuable assets to people across various and diverse lifestyles.

Overall, this laboratory exercise emphasizes the similarities and differences of receptor mediated and non-specific endocytosis, and their significance in mediating transport of extracellular cargo. Additionally, the impact of other cellular machinery (i.e microtubules) on the efficacy of endosome migration is explored, highlighting the intricate collaborative nature of the cell.