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A coupled reaction is a series of connected reactions, which share products and substrates. The reactions increase efficiency of energy transfer, and allows more points of regulation. The regulation is important for conservation of energy and resources. In order for a coupled reaction to be favored the net delta G must be overall negative. This means the pathways cannot be direct opposites of each other because than the pathway would have a slightly positive making it unfavorable. Also the pathway would then be futile and waste energy.

1 gram of nutmeg was added to a round bottom Erlenmeyer flask and then 3 mL of TBME was added to the flask as well. The distillation process was then followed proceeded by a micro scale filtration that occurred pipet-full by pipet-full. 2 mL of TBME was then added again to the nutmeg and the filtration method was repeated. A light air stream was then run over the crude product and after a 5 minute drying period the weight was obtained. 12 mL of acetone was then added to the flask the solid was dissolved via a recrystallization process. The dissolved solution was cooled at room temperature and in an ice bath, the vacuum filtration method was then followed and the crystals were allowed to dry. A final weight and MP was then obtained. Following the filtration .072g of Trymyristin was then transferred to a round bottom flask. 2 mL of 6 M NaOH, 2 mL of 95% Ethanol and boiling chips were added to the flask. The solution was then refluxed for approximately 45 minutes. The remaining Trymyristin was then recrystallized and filtered a second time. The MP and final weight of the Trymyristin was recorded. After 45 minutes the refluxed solution was cooled at room temperature and transferred to a 50 mL beaker containing 8 mL of water. 2 mL of concentrated HCl was then added to the solution. The beaker was then cooled on ice while being stirred. The solid was collected via vacuum filtration and was allowed to dry overnight before obtaining a final weight and MP.

There are numerous intricate processes involved in the determination and evolution of

male guppy coloration. Since guppies exhibit sexual dimorphism, sexual selection is likely a

prominent factor in varying levels of male showiness. The more ornate a guppy is, the more

likely it is to obtain a mate, reproduce, and pass on its genes. However, theses elaborate colors

also pose a threat to survival, as they attract predators. Therefore, the varying environments and

substrates will affect survival, because certain environments will provide more protection and

hiding spots from predators. Several hypotheses for varying levels of male showiness are:

1. When predators are present, the type of substrate will affect survival, resulting in a

change in spot brightness over time.

2. As predation increases, male guppy spot brightness will decrease, because higher spot

brightness attracts predators.

3. In the absence of predation, and at low predations levels, spot brightness will increase

due to sexual selection.

2) What, exactly, did the researchers do to try to answer their question?

They first used a regression equation to determine the independent effects of gaping and calling in regards to effect on parental care. They then correlated these 2 factors and determined that both factors in tandem appear to be the most optimized means of conveying nutritional needs. To determine the effect of the begging call they compared to responses of the parents subjected to 49 nests with either 2 or 4 chicks that were 6/7 days old. They then amplified the call in the experimental groups with either a playback of 1 or 4 additional chicks and compared these results to the control groups that did not have any vocal augmentation. Once they created a regression model that best quantified these results they then applied this formula to chicks of other ages.The compared the parental response by transposing blackbird and song thrush chicks into warblers nests as they rival the cuckoo chicks in size. They then tested the response of the parents in the presence of these experimental species performing their  natural displaying (large gaping) that was augmented by a cuckoo call.

1) What question were the researchers trying to answer?

The researchers were trying to discover why common cuckoo chicks are able to successfully parasitize warbler nests. Specifically,  they are researching the complex behavior that is displayed by the cuckoo and warbler chicks in an effort to quantify the effect each signal type (gaping displays and call frequency) has on the parental individuals in regards to how much food they provide. To begin,  they first tested the various impacts of different response levels and discovered that multiple signals offered more precise information regarding how much food the chicks required, the age of the individual as well as the size of the brood. However, they then transition to the effect of a cuckoo parasite on a nest of warblers and note that one cuckoo requires the nutrition needed for approximately 4 warbler chicks. They question how only a cuckoo chick, with its enormous size,  is able to trick the foster parents into continually bringing it large amount of food.

To confirm their suspected correlation between cooperative passerines and parasitic species they used phylogenetic comparisons of the fauna in the aforementioned areas. Their results showed that a large percentage of the species targeted by parasitic individuals in these areas were indeed cooperative breeders. Their theories were confirmed after comparing the growth rates of cuckoo (parasitic) chicks in biparnal and group care settings. In larger groups (3+) cuckoos grew at a faster rate with decreased levels of death due to smaller predation rates.  However, these potential benefits were seldom realized as larger groups were able to defend from parasitism more efficiently. Finally, they determine that cooperative behavior is driven by their increased reproductive success secondary to their defensive measures.

Cooperatively breeding passerines are targeted by parasitic species more frequently and due to their heavy cost, defense mechanisms in the form of mobbing have also evolved in response to this.  Feeny and his team initially began their study due to the overlapping concentrations of cooperatively breeding passerine species and parasitic species in australian and african regions.Furthermore, the driving force between these interactions is unclear and they note that this may be a coincidence secondary to the unpredictable environments they both inhabit. They proposed that 3 non mutually exclusive theories that could have driven the evolution of this behavior: 1. The parasitic offspring receive the greatest care, cooperative nests are more easily visible due to their activity and finally cooperative breeding may be selected for as they can better defend their nests from parasites.

The cell wall provides many functions to the well being of a plant. First, the cell wall is strong and durable. This helps to protect the plant from the environment as well as pathogens. This durability also helps to support the plant during growth. If it wasn’t for the strength of the cell wall, the plant would wilt and not be able to grow upright. The strength of the cell wall also helps to anchor the plant to its environment. This allows the plant to survive without being easily uprooted. Aside from mechanical function, the cell wall also aids in transporting water and nutrients throughout the plant, as well as signaling and transferring information throughout the plant.

For our experiment, we will assign each of the eight groups from the Writing in Biology 312 course there designated floor in either Morrill building III or IV. They will observe and take note of five different surroundings in the window sills located in classrooms available and open to the students. They will collect data on the presence of different small organisms such as insects or arachnids. Insects or creatures will include fruit flies or other flies, carpenter bees, spiders, or ants. Exact location of the five window sills will be taken note of. In addition, whether the environment was hot or cold will be recorded. They will count insects or creatures and data collected will be inserted into the chart in Appendix A. Groups will remain in their designated floor and examine what they see overall. At the end of their observations, each group will submit their data into a document excel sheet. After all data has been recorded and gathered an analysis will be made to come to a conclusion of which Morrill building will be a great environment for many insects that surround us.

Plants photosynthetic abilities are determined by its chlorophyll. Chlorophyll are the subunits responsible for photosynthesis in plants, as well as the pigmentation of the plant. The color of chlorophyll is determined by the wavelength of visible light that it does not absorb. Chlorophyll a is the most abundant chlorophyll in plants and is the reason most plants appear green. Chlorophyll a absorbs red light and blue light, while reflecting green/yellow light. This reflection is what we see when we look at the color of a plant. There are many types of chlorophyll, each specializing in different wavelengths of light. This causes them to portray unique colors and define the plants that have them.