Drafts

Retrievers are either black or brown depending on whether TRP-1 and TRP-2 are synthesized. If TRP-2 and TRP-1 are synthesized then the retriever is black, but if only TRP-2 is synthesized then the retriever is brown. In the case of a yellow lab however, neither TRP-1 or TRP-2 are synthesized. This is due to a mutation in the MSH gene that changes its conformation. Because of the change in conformation, the MSH can no longer bind to the MSH-R. The MSH-R is what signals to produce the TRP-1 and TRP-2 that causes pigmentation. This is what causes the hair of the yellow retriever to never become pigmented.

The differences between Figure 1 and Figure 2 are immediately apparent, however there are several similarities as well. The figures share proportions in that Panels B and C are the same approximate size to each other and in each while Panel A is the same approximate size in each. The lighting is more evenly distributed in Figure 1 than in Figure 2 and there are less shadows. Figure 1 is taken slightly higher and angled slightly more in Panels A and B. In Figure 1’s Panel A, there are more pots and plants visible in the background, while in Figure 2’s Panel A, the top ledge of plants is not visible and only one pot is in good visibility. Figure 2 Panel A’s plant is wider in relation to the rest of the picture. The white tag leans left to the midline of the plant in both figures. Panel B of each of the figures varies in that Figure 1’s Panel B depicts one pink and white flower with a couple others in the background, while Figure 2’s Panel B depicts the entire plant at a different angle with the tag to the left of the midline of the plant. There are also many differences in the Panel C’s. Figure 1 includes South America and North America with a portion of Greenland, while Figure 2 omits everything north of the U.S. and adds a portion of Africa. The background of the map is gray is Figure 1 while in Figure 2 it is blue and green. In each, pink is used to fill in individual countries, however it is slightly more purple in tone in Figure 2. The continents appear to be slightly skinnier in Figure 2.

Retriever dogs have three distinct phenotypes. There is the black phenotype, the brown phenotype, and the yellow phenotype. The difference in expression between the black and brown phenotype comes down to the production of two enzymes: TRP-1 and TRP-2. All retrievers produce tyrosine, which when reacted with tyrosinase forms dopaquinone. TRP-2 then reacts with the dopaquinone to create the brown pigment, which then reacts with TRP-1 to form the black pigment. Black is the dominant color of the two because it takes only one signal to produce both TRP-1 and TRP-2. There is a mutation in the recessive allele that causes only TRP-2 to be produced, causing the pigmentation to halt once it reaches the brown pigment. 

Inferences can be made regarding the differences observed between these two figures due to how the methods were written.  The differences in fonts, bolding, and location of panel labels are due to there not being a precise description of how these should look.  There is only a description of which figures are labeled with which letter, allowing room for error.  Both figures contained panel labels that were in black, potentially due to black being the most common font color.  There is also a color difference in parts A and B of both figures.  This may be due to the differences in cameras used, or differences in day time when the pictures were taken.

In part A of both figures, the camera angle and orientation of the sign in front of the orchid differed.  There was explanation of how to orient the plant using the sign as a reference in the methods, but these instructions were followed more closely in the second figure.  The picture was initially taken,then the methods written, making the methods conform less to the picture.   There was also less description about the distance between the orchid and the photographer which could account for there being more of the bench and surrounding plants included in figure 2.

            The differences between the size of the individual images, figure, and size of margins in the replicate figure and the original can be due to a variety of reason. However, the major cause can be due to the device used to capture the image and the imagery software used to create the figure itself. The size of the individual images will vary based on the device used to take the images. Whether taken on a professional photographic device or a mobile phone, as well as the make and model of the devices, the dimensions will be different. The original images were taken by an IPhone 8. Once on desktop or laptop, the imagery software used to create the figure will cause differences. There are several imagery software’s both online and as a downloadable software such as Photoshop that can be used to create the figure. Each software has a different setting and different capabilities that determine the size and dimensions of the images that are used to create the figure. This will account for the size differential of the individual images, figures, and size of margins. The original figure was created with an online website. In addition, the replicators knowledge and experience using this software is a factor in the replication.

            The absence of labels for each image in the figure can be contributed to the lack of directions or clarification in the methods. Unclear directions lead to confusion which will lead the replicator to leave absent. Similar to differences in the size and margins, lack of knowledge and experience can cause the replicator to leave out the labels if they do not know how to add them. These two contributions lead to the absence of the labels for each image in the figure.

Finally, the multipanel figure was constructed. There were three main panels consisting of a picture of the full plant, a picture of a close up of the flower, and the figure showing the plant’s origin. The multipanel figure was set up so that there was a long image on the left side and two stacked images on the right side. The long image on the left, labeled A, was the photo of the entire plant. The photo in the top right, labeled B, was the close up photo of the flower itself. The bottom right photo, labeled C, was the figure that shows the plant’s origin. For the labels A, B, and C, the letters were in the top left of the photo they were labeling, in a white box. The letters were in 72 font size and only occupied a small amount of space. 

The human brain is composed of several segmented compartments that are responsible for a wide variety of functions. While individualized,  complex behavior, such as movement was theorized to be multifactorial, involving communication between several areas to coordinate actions. In the paper discussed, the connection between intent, movement and the predicted response to this action were all observed and analyzed via electrical stimulation during brain surgery. In summary, stimulation of the parietal lobe induced an intent and increased stimuli lead to a pseudo movement, where the patient believed they had moved and even interpreted sensation as if they had, however, no movement occured. In contrast, stimulation of the premotor cortex elicited movement, however the patient’s were completely unaware of these actions and they did not express any desire to move. The author infers that movement is an efferent response or plan created by the parietal region of the brain that is then communicated to the premotor cortex, which carries out this action independently of predicted consequences.  

In order to achieve elevation and forward motion, or flight, birds are able to manipulate air pressure to utilize a force known as lift while mitigating the opposing force to lift, known as drag. Lift is generated by the redirection of air to the ventral side of the wing. This occurs due to the streamlined and asymmetric structure of the wing. The accumulation of this pressure creates a natural gradient, which then pushes against the wing in an effort to restore equilibrium. This movement of fluid generates lift and the amount of lift generated is secondary to the SA of the wing as well as the speed of the air passing through the feather. In addition, lift can be artificially enhanced in slower wind speeds by increasing the angle of attack or the angle of the wing. By doing this, the SA of the wing is increased, which directly increases lift, however, this also increases drag and after a certain angle the drag will overwhelm the total lift, causing the bird to stall. This phenomenon is also utilized and is commonly used for precision landing that does not require a gradual decline in speed.

Flight is typically regarded as an evolutionary marvel and a defining characteristic of birds, however, there have been dozens of species that have thrived by evolving a more terrestrial lifestyle. Flightlessness has typically evolved in environments where flight, and the various tradeoffs necessary to both achieve and sustain this, are a total net-negative in terms of fitness or survivability. Some of these consequences of flight include the the high cost during development, the morphological trade offs necessary to have a body that can efficiently flight and the increased metabolic needs to sustain flight. Environments where flight would not be beneficial are places with low rates of predation or low competition for resources. It could also evolve due to the lack of necessity, as there are terrestrial niches that would favor larger size and beaks (predatory role).  Dodo bird, Giant Moa and Phorusrhacos all lost flight  (lack of predation, increased E to size, predatory role) specifically.  These species seem to exhibit Neoteny or retention of juvenile characteristics as opposed to complete recession of wing development as they still have a not well ossified sternum and obtuse scapula-coracoid joint.  Also, developmental heterochrony, which shortens the embryonic process of wing development

The discovery of archaeopteryx 2 years after Darwin published his theory of evolution initiated the argument that birds were of theropod descent. This creature, while reptilian in nature, had wings with asymmetrical pattern (flight) as well as a larger skull which presumably housed a larger brain.  The prevailing alternative hypothesis states that thecodonts are potential ancestors  due to their large, wing-like scales found on their dorsal aspects. Following this discovery, multiple fossils of feathered dinosaurs were uncovered including sinosauropteryx,  protarchaeopteryx, caudipteryx as well as several microraptor skeletons that all contributed their own unique clues which supported the theropod descent theory.