I found both articles that we were tasked with reading this week very interesting, they were also very similar structurally and information wise as well. After reading chapter 7 in the class required text the reason for the similarities is quite obvious, the methodically thought out structure allows a logical and strong flow of ideas making it extremely easy for the readers, even novel ones, to understand the topics at hand. As for the specific simlarites seen, one example is the  the level one headers, normally centered and bolded, of both articles contained both the title of the paper or large section, the authors and the publication information. The level 2 headers, which were bolded and orientated to the left, of the papers preceded to contain the section descriptions, such as introduction or abstract and indicated when a new topic or study was about to be discussed. When each section was broken down and looked at closely the similarites continued to appear. For each of the papers specific sections were structured similar to the way the whole paper was, but in an abbreviated version obviously. The individual section had intro paragraphs, normally the first paragraph of each section, to introduce the information and then the sections continue on, providing new statistics and information, each one building off of the last one. Each section was also responsible for providing new information and statistics of the overall topic. The similarities continued to be noticeable even when observing the individual paragraphs. For example they each had a topic sentence to either transition between paragraphs or introduce a new topic. This methodically thought out structure and the similarities seen throughout the field of scientific writing allow the ideas to be very logically organized and flow well. And the fact that each sentence continues to build on the ideas presented in the first and second level headers and the topic sentence of the specific paragraph really assists the reader in understanding the overall point of the paper.

Both of theses scientific articles are dealing with native and non-native species however, they focus on different aspects of the subject and structure the two papers differently. The level 1 headings for both papers are the titles ‘Origin matters: widely distributed native and non-native species benefit from functional traits’ and ‘Non-native species and rates of spread: lessons from the Baltic Sea’. The level 2 headings in the first paper are the headings to each section of the paper such as the Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Conclusion. These sections were split into sub sections such as ‘species selection’ or Trait selectin’. The second paper has the ‘Introduction’ and ‘Conclusion and Discussion’, but it never titles a methods section, the paper seems to not discuss methods and jumps right into results. The body of the paper has sub headings, but it would have been clearer if there was a result heading.

            The layout of the papers may be different, but it seems that the structure of the individual sections for both papers are relatively similar. The Introduction and Conclusion sections are more classically set up; the first paragraph serves as an introduction to the rest and it is more conceptual writing. The results sections for both papers are less structured. The first paragraphs tend to lead right into the information and aim to present data not ideas.

            The structure of the paragraphs follow a similar model to the sections. If the paragraph is in a more conceptual section, then it is more structured. These paragraphs have a topic sentence that is an overview of the following paragraph. The paragraphs in the results section tend to dive right into the information. 

Structure of Scientific Literature

The similarities of these two pieces of literature are the level 2 headings, this includes the abstract, introduction, discussion and conclusions. Although the article about the non-native species in the Baltic Sea, if read one can see that they are included. On the other hand, the article on the wide spread and different traits of these species specifically states these headings. The abstract is used in these pieces of literature to give a quick summarizing background on the topic of discussion. The following section is the introduction which is a more in-depth background configuration which includes the original thought and ending with the hypothesis which will try to be validated or invalidated in the research. Materials and methods are to follow. This section is used to give specific details about how they retrieved their data in order for other scientists who are interested in the topic to perform the research on their own to validate the authors results. The results section is where they include all of their data, including well organized tables and graphs to connect all of their data in a simple and efficient display. Finally, the discussion and conclusion section is used to discuss the results point out any major setbacks or notable data they expected or did not expect. This is also where they connect it back to their hypothesis and validate or invalidate it in a clear and concise way.  

Also as agriculture production soared, the demand for more land was inevitable. As a result, we saw racial discrimination shift from African Americans to Native Americans. Americans created the idea of Manifest Destiny to justify this discrimination. Manifest Destiny said that it was God’s given will and their divine destiny to expand their nation westward, ultimately forcing the relocation of Native Americans. As a result, with a “justifiable” reason and a high demand for more land, the white settlers forced the Native Americans out of their homes and venture on a journey westward. In these examples, we highlight a hidden motive and reasoning for certain racial discriminations towards certain groups as competition and the carrying capacity of an ecosystem is pushed to its limits.

The first paper titled: Origin matters: widely distributed native and non-native species benefit from different functional traits uses some generic headings such as introduction or materials and methods,. however it also uses some sub headings in larger sections to help organize its information. As an example the materials and methods section has a new heading whenever a new aspect of the study is being discussed, such as moving on from species selection, to what traits of that species will be looked at. Another thing that I noticed about this article is that the same sub heading will be used under two different main headings to explain how different aspects relate to each other throughout the paper.In the second paper titled: Non-native species and rates of spread: lessons from the brackish Baltic Sea there are fewer headings and far fewer subheadings used. Compared to paper 1 all the different aspects of the things being looked at are not separated by subject. While they both use headings to clarify what is being talked about, the second paper’s structure is harder to follow. One paper is more of an amalgamation of studies designed to talk about the effects of invasive species and the characteristics that lead to both their survival and the survival of native species and the other looks at the rates of invasive species in particular areas. Both papers are structured to discuss relevant information and then present their findings in organized ways.

In this study, twenty-four young and older men and women participated. All subjects were matched for physical activity. Biopsies from the vastus lateralis were taken from each subject and imaged using electron microscopy. These images were provided by collaborators at the University of Vermont. Images were then analyzed using a protocol to identify intramyocellular lipid droplets within the muscle fiber. Lipid droplets were identified using the criteria as follows; a gray/white interior, somewhat circular in shape, contains a gray outline, doesn’t have multiple membranes on the outside or have debris inside, and usually adjacent to mitochondria. A protocol was then developed in order to create a thresholded image containing only lipid droplets. These thresholded images were then analyzed for circularity, area ratio, roundness, solidity, and % area. using ImageJ. This data was collected and cross-checked between multiple (2) undergraduate researchers.

    Intramyocellular lipid content is not only used as a source of energy in adipose tissue, but also in skeletal muscle. It has been shown that during prolonged exercise, IMCL content decreases as the lipid content is transformed into energy. Similarly, prior to routine exercise, trained athletes exhibit elevated amounts of IMCL content within skeletal  muscle in order to compensate for the amount of energy that is regularly used and lost during exercise.  

    Previous studies have found that older men tend to have larger IMCL droplets and fewer droplets when compared with other groups (Crane et al. 2010). Based on these studies, it is expected that such variation in IMCL content is responsible for the differences in mitochondrial function and lipid metabolism between the young and older populations.

It is understood that within human muscle fibers there exist lipid droplets which are known as intramyoceullar lipids (IMCL). There have been numerous studies which have investigated the difference in intraymocellular content, but none have been matched for physical activity as our data has been matched for physical activity.  It is thought that older men have larger IMCL droplets than young adults. Additionally it was previously determined that older adults have a lower percentage of IMCL in contact with mitochondria as compared to young adults (Crane et al. 2010). Furthermore, trained athletes have a high IMCL content which is countered by having a greater concentration of mitochondria.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of age and sex on IMCL content within skeletal muscle. Identifying such relationships between IMCL content and other variables such as age and sex while being matched for physical activity can reveal relevant information regarding why IMCL storage in skeletal muscle is important for physical performance. From a clinical standpoint, examining factors that influence lipid size in respect to aging and sex differences can be beneficial in designing interventions to improve lipid metabolic efficiency.This in turn would increase the availability of energy to skeletal muscles, allowing for increased physical function.

    Intramyocellular lipid content is a source of energy used within skeletal muscle. In this study, EM images of the vastus lateralis were taken for twenty four subjects who were matched for physical exercise. These EM Images were analyzed for IMCL content using GIMP and ImageJ programs. Based on the analysis we found that there was a age by sex difference in IMCL lipid area older women were found to have a much lower IMCL lipid area than in younger women.

The article Origin matters: widely distributed native and non-native species benefit from different functional traits had similarities and differences to the previous article. Similarly, this article has level 2 headings that include introduction, methods and materials, and discussion. There are also some subheadings that help the author divide up the different elements of the methods, like “Trait selection” and “Trait interaction models”. The divided subsections helped make the paper easier to follow. Just like the previous article, in the beginning of each section, there is an introduction paragraph that shows the reader what the section will entail. However, in this article, one of the introduction sentences to these introduction paragraphs has a rhetorical question. This article was concise and had good flow, however it did not flow as well as the other article. This article follows the IMRAD format exactly.

the sensory systems collect signals in the environment and convey them to the CNS
sound: change of air pressure
- action potential can upkeep an amplitude for a long distance because it can regenerate itself due to the Na+ channels
- amplitudes don’t differ in the same neuron, but can differ across neurons
- action potential doesn’t carry info, it is the timing (the signal is digital)
- change in the environment provide signals (light, chemical, mechanical)
Mechanical = Touch and Hearing (hearing is the movement of physical objects, no physical contact)
Chemical = Olfaction and Taste
- conversion happens in 3 steps
1. electrical signals of the environment converted into receptor potential
2. needs to be sensed by a receptor, becomes converted into electrical signal in the receptor = membrane potential = receptor potential (if it happens in the receptor)
- receptor potential is incremental and is reflecting the signal in the outside
3. receptor potential converted to action potential along the afferent fiber (action potential is digital = can propagate long distance w/out changing amplitude
What is in common?
- parallel processing in multiple pathways, work in parallel, in any given time, all of them are telling something to the brain, true for all sensory systems
- two steps processing
- the difference is the receptor, convert external signals into incremental change
(axon terminal = receptor potential at a receptor, variation among type of sensory system)