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Guanine protein coupled reactions (GPCR's) are a type of G-protein linked receptors that detect molecule outside the cell and cause a cell response. Initially, the guanine protein is made up of three subunits, an alpha, beta, and gamma subunit. When a ligand attaches on the outside of the transmembrane protein a conformational change occurs and the GPCR can activate an associated G-protein by exchanging a GDP bound to the alpha subunit with a GTP. When the alpha subunit is phosphorylated it dissociates from the beta and gamma subunits, which stay together. Both sections, the alpha subunit and the beta-gamma subunit complex, are now able to act on effectors that the are proper for the received signal. This continues until the alpha subunit is dephosphorylated. When this happens, all three subunits are rejoined and the GPCR returns to a resting state.

There are many possible ways to analyze DNA. Some popular methods include Gel Electrophoresis and Restriction Enzymes. The main purpose of Gel Electrophoresis is to separate DNA (genetic material) samples by size. The samples are attracted to the positive end of the well located on the gel, so they move in that direction. The smaller sized samples move much quicker than the large ones, making it easy to distinguish by size. The purpose of using restriction enzymes is to cut DNA at specific recognition sequences. The DNA is digested by some of the enzyme (for example EcoRI) and is fragmented into several sizes at specific sites. This allows for the fragments to be used in Gel Electrophoresis.

Biologists in Africa’s Albertine Rift region recently made a surprising discovery – a new species of bird living high in the mountains of this incredibly biodiverse area. They named this bird Willard’s Sooty Boubou, which is closley related to another previously recognized high-elevation bird species, the Mountain Sooty Boubou. While these birds appear to be quite similar, the main difference between them is the elevations at which they are found. The Willard’s Sooty Boubou is found at approximately 1200-1900 meters, and the Mountain Sooty Boubou is found at 1800-3800 meters. Sadly, the discovery took an unexpected turn for the worse. While the team was quite happy to find this new bird, after analyzing its habitat they soon realized that more than half of it had been destroyed for agricultural needs. This has sparked debates in the local area on taking measures to protect the birds environment and conserve what is left of its habitat before it goes extinct. Estimates show that 50-70% of its habitat has been lost, and does not show signs of recovering without significant human intervention. By better understanding this new species of bird and identifying what kind of ecological niche it fills, scientists can learn how to better protect it in the face of growing threats.

Jean Baptiste Lamarck was a French naturalist. He was the first to research invertebrate animals, and an early advocate for the idea of evolution. He had a discredited theory that evolution occurs when parent organisms pass on acquired traits to their offsprings. Now, we widely believe in Darwin's theory that evolution occurs because of natural selection.

However, new research findings suggest that Lamarck's theory might have some truth to it. We now know that hereditary epigenetic changes violate Mendelian principles. Epigenetic changes occur by transcriptional modifications: due to alterations on histone tail charges, chromatin binding, X-chromosome inactivations etc.  Although these changes pass on from mother to daughter cells, the modifications are typically erased in the germ cells. However, accumulating evidence suggests the opposite: passing on of epimutations. So far, the phenomenon has been spotted in plants, fruit flies and yeast.

Previous to the appearance of modern wildlife tracking technologies, little was known about many aspects of the life histories of marine creatures, including how they use space and their migratory habits. A long-term study performed by researchers in the coast of South Africa used photographic identification data since 1997 for recording white shark activity in Gansbaai. With the development of electronic tagging devices such as acoustic tags, PAT tags, and satellite tags, the researchers were able to take their study a step further and discover where white sharks go when they are not roaming along the coast of South Africa. Among the tagged white sharks of their study, a female classified as P12 performed the fastest return migration ever recorded in a marine animal, when it traveled to Australia and back to its natal range in South Africa in less than 9 months, navigating more than 20,000 km at a minimum speed of 4.7 kilometres per hour. Although more data from individual migrations of white sharks should be recorded, this first transoceanic journey suggests a connection between two important populations in South Africa and Australia, and offers important information for conservation efforts of endangered marine fauna.

The word cancer is something you don't want to hear especially when you go to the doctor. Thanks to the scientific research we know that ovarian cancer occurs in women over the age of 50, however this disese also affects younger women. There is a high risk of inheriting the disease that is passed down from the mother or the father's side. These mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 puts you in risk of increasing your chances of having breast cancer. This is why paying attention to the early symptoms is crucial. A pelvic exam is necessary to see if there are irregularities such as having an abnormal mas. CT scanning and MRI are techniques to see if this mass is malignant. Treatment requires removing the ovaries followed by chemo and according to cancer.org " If ovarian cancer is found and treated before it has metastasize the 5 year survival is 92%." 

Amino acids are the primary building blocks of all proteins. Each amino acid is comprised of a central alpha carbon with an alpha hydrogen, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable R-group that makes them unique. The amino end is referred to as the N-terminus, and the carboxyl end Is referred to as the C-terminus. A total of twenty common amino acids exist within our bodies and they are sorted into different groups based on their chemical properties. For example, polar amino acids are considered to be hydrophilic (water loving) because their R-groups will interact with other polar molecules, including water. Amino acids polymerize with one another via a dehydration reaction and form a polypeptide chain comprised of anywhere from forty to thousands of these tiny building blocks. This is known as the primary structure of a protein.The aforementioned chemical properties of amino acids dictate how the primary structure will fold in an aqueous environment. Since the structure and shape of a protein is dependant on these R-group interactions and protein function is facilitated by shape, it is important that they fold properly. Therefore, the specific position of a given amino acid in the polypeptide is crucial for protein formation. Proteins cannot exist without amino acids and we cannot exist without proteins; amino acids are fundamental components of life itself.

Chondrichtyes are a class of cartilaginous fish which contains Holocephali and Elasmobronchii. There are about 40 extant species of Holocephali, one example being the ratfish. Female Holocephali are oviparous and will lay 1-2 eggs as a time. Males may be identified by the presence of claspers as well as a frontal tenaculum. The defining feature of the Holocephali is that they have a holostylic jaw suspension, meaning their upper jaw is fused with their braincase.

Elasmobrochii includes fish such as sharks, rays and skates. Although rays and skates are often placed into their own group known as the Batoids. This distinction is based on presence of gills on the sides of sharks, while rays and skates have gills located on their underside. All Elasmobrachi have placoid scales, that are similar to teeth in structure. Like teeth they have a pulp cavity, an enamel like substance that coats them and are even made of dentin. This has lead to the hypothesis that teeth are modified placoid scales, that migrated to the interior of the mouth. Of course, the opposite may also be true.

Diabetes mellitus is a disease that negatively affects the body’s ability to obtain energy from food. There are two forms of diabetes mellitus; type one and type two. Both of these types result from a defect in the negative feedback loop that regulates blood sugar levels. The negative feedback loop in a patient without diabetes works by using a sensor, effector, and control center. The pancreatic beta cells, which act as a sensor, detect an increase in blood sugar after the patient eats food. The pancreas also acts as the control center and is directed to release insulin into the blood. The insulin facilitates the reuptake of glucose from the cells, therefore, working as the effector to lower the blood sugar levels.

A patient with type one diabetes creates antibodies that destroy the pancreatic beta cells, therefore, damaging the sensor and control center of the negative feedback loop. As a result, the pancreas does not know to secrete insulin and leaves the blood glucose levels abnormally high. On the other hand, patients with type two diabetes do not have these antibodies; instead, they suffer from insulin resistance. In this case, the damaged part of the negative feedback loop is the effecter, as the cells do not respond to the insulin secretion. If the cells are not sensitive to the insulin, the glucose is not able to readily enter the cell, thus resulting in high blood sugar. In both cases, the damaged negative feedback loop fails to bring the blood sugar back to normal and can result in further complications. 

I believe the second biome is similar to the temperate deciduous forest. Which is most likely found between 30º and 50º N. In this area it is also important to note that it is limited to “on the eastern and western edges of Eurasia, and on the eastern edges of North America” (Bowman 65). This is because the further inland you go the more precipitation is lost which will affect the growth of trees. The main factor that led me to believe that it behaves like a temperate deciduous forest are the periods of sub-freezing temperatures. The sub-freezing temperatures occur between the months of December, January, and mid-February. In addition, I also noticed that there were no periods of time where it was insufficient for plant growth which supports the idea of tree growth. The mystery biome is described as having an annual precipitation rate of 1562 mm. If this biome is like the other biomes we have studied, I’d assume it contains trees such as oak trees which are deciduous and lose their leaves. This trait is important for the freezing temperatures. The mystery biome and the temperate deciduous forest are similar in many ways.