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          In this experiment, the goal was to synthesize 3-methylbutyl acetate and utilize several characterization methods to verify the successful formation of the product. The reaction was performed via esterification, using acetic acid and 3-methyl-1-butanol as reagents and sulfuric acid as the catalyst. The odor of acetic acid resembled that of vinegar, while the odor of 3-methyl-1-butanol resembled an artificial sour apple smell. The odor of the product, 3-methylbutyl acetate, resembled an artificial banana smell. This indicates that the product was successfully synthesized because 3-methylbutyl acetate is known informally as banana oil. The percent yield of the product was 84.42%. The low yield could have been a result of transfer loss from some product remaining in the reflux column. A sample of the product was used to allow for further identification via IR spectroscopy. The IR displayed an alkyl C-H stretch at 2959.90 cm-1 and a C=O stretch at 1741.80 cm-1, as well as no large absorptions above 3000 cm-1, indicating that there are no O-H containing impurities. These experimental data are consistent with the known  IR spectrum of a typical alkyl ester, which is characterized by an alkyl C-H stretch that is just to the right of 3000 cm-1 and a C=O stretch that is at about 1750 cm-1. This supports the conclusion that 3-methylbutyl acetate was successfully synthesized.

Recrystallization of trimyristin was processed twice and each melting point was recorded and observed. The tert-butyl methyl ether (3 mL) and nutmeg (1.000 g) were dissolved to obtain crude trimyristin that resulted in a 57.8% recovery yield (0.578 g). After the first recrystallization, ac x 30.2% recovery yield, based on the original amount of nutmeg, was collected. The melting point of the first recrystallization was 53-54 ℃, which is 2℃ under the theoretical melting point. Therefore, we can conclude from this that the product was relatively pure. After, a sample of trimyristin from the first recrystallization (0.167 g) was dissolved in a minimal amount of acetone in the second recrystallization in attempt to obtain a more pure product. A 49.1% recovery yield was attained from the second recrystallization. The corresponding melting point recorded was 54-55℃, which is only 1℃ below the theoretical melting point and reveals that the second recrystallized product is relatively pure.

Quorum sensing is something that bacterial cells can use to communicate. The signals that the bacteria produce are N-acyl-homoserine lactones or AHLs. These signals can be received by the bacterial species or different bacterial species. There are two primary genes involved in quorum sensing. There is the I gene which codes for AHL synthase and the R gene which is a transcriptional regulator. AHL synthase, which the I gene codes for, is responsible for producing the AHL signal that other bacterial cells will be able to receive. The AHL binds to a receptor on a neighboring cell and a transcriptional response is activated, this is where the R gene begins to function. The R gene transcribes new DNA in response to the signal being received. For example the bacteria C. violaceum produces a purple pigmented antibiotic violacein, C. violaceum only produces this antibiotic after it has received a signal from a neighboring cell telling it to do so. Quorum sensing is vital for bacteria living in the environment to communicate with neighboring cells.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there has been a significant increase in the diagnoses of autism. In 2000, one in every 150 children were diagnosed with Autism in the US. More recently, the numbers have increased drastically where one in every 59 children are diagnosed. The search for medical treatments has been ongoing. One promising avenue includes analysis of the gut microbiome. Recent research suggests that changes in normal gut microbiota may be responsible for a large range of diseases. This is specifically of interest for autism research because roughly 30-50% of people with autism have chronic gastrointestinal (GI) problems.

My friend got a hamster yesterday. Her hamster is a female Syrian Hamster, also known as a Teddy Bear Hamster or Golden Hamster. Her nickname is Chubby until she decides what to actually name her.  She is very fluffy. The scientific name of this hamster is Mesocricetus auratus. As a member of the rodent family, she has sharp ever growing incisors. She nipped my finger after she smelt me and it hurt more than I thought it would. She has cheek pouches that expands when she eats or tries to bring food back to her little house. She fur is soft and is a light brown color. Syrian hamsters are usually between 5-7 inches in length and weigh about 120 grams. As pets, they can live up to 3-4 years, and in the wild up to 2 years.  

The first clue that eukaryotic DNA contains several types of sequences not present in prokaryotic DNA came from studies in which double-stranded DNA was separated and then allowed to reassociate. When double-stranded DNA in solution is heated, the hydrogen bonds that hold the two nucleotide strands together are weakened, and with enough heat, the two strands separate completely, a process called denaturation or melting. The temperature at which DNA denatures, called the melting temperature (Tm), depends on the base sequence of the particular sample of DNA: G–C base pairs have three hydrogen bonds, whereas A–T base pairs have only two, so the separation of G–C pairs requires more heat (energy) than does the separation of A–T pairs. The denaturation of DNA by heating is reversible: if single-stranded DNA is slowly cooled, single strands will collide and hydrogen bonds will form again between complementary base pairs, producing double-stranded DNA. This reaction is called renaturation or reannealing.

For the treatment regarding the three miRNAs in ovarian cancer associated fibroblasts, I tried to elucidate the downstream targets by which these epigenetic changes of mi-RNAs in CAFs induce epithelial to mesenchymal transition of cancer cells. By reading the literature, I found and described a few pathways. Despite these known pathways, the mechanisms by which mi-RNAs lead to epithelial to mesenchymal transition are likely far more complicated. Mi-RNAs are short, approximately 20 bases in length. Therefore, they are interesting because they often have binding specificity for thousands of genes, meaning they can downregulate the expression for all of these genes. Therefore, there are likely many more pathways that are unknown. Treatment involving mi-RNAs usually evolves from an observational study about miRNA dysregulation, and the reversal of the cancerous phenotype having anti-cancer effects. These studies are sometimes substantial to warrant treatments based on their findings, without figuring out exactly why they work. While it may be startling, proving anti-tumor properties is sometimes enough to garner FDA approval, despite not knowing a mechanism of action. For example, Procarbazine, an FDA approved chemotherapy drug commonly used to treat Hodgkin’s lymphoma, has a mechanism of action that is not fully understood.

Triglycerides are also proposed to have an impact on the development of neuropathy. Triglycerides and obesity correlate with diabetic neuropathy independent of glucose control. Smith and Singleton found that obesity and triglycerides were related to small axon loss whereas hyperglycemia was related to large fiber loss indicating that hypertriglyceridemia and obesity have an independent effect on peripheral neuropathy (8). Wiggin et al analyzed samples from a double-blind placebo clinical trial with Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) at two doses.  Since the intervention had no effect, data from three arms (placebo, 1.5 and 3.0 gm doses) were combined.  The investigators found a correlation between elevated triglycerides and mixed small and large myelinated fiber density (MFD).   Further higher triglycerides were associated with those whose neuropathy progressed as evidenced by changes in MFD (9).

Metastatic pancreatic adenocarcinoma is driven by cancer stem cells, formation and upregulation of the metastatic niche, EMT, and the largely hypoxic state of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Cancer stem cells are the central drivers of metastasis due to their inherent plasticities and contribute to chemoresistance, functioning of the premetastatic niche, and induction of EMT (Sancho et al. 2016). In the premetastatic niche, extracellular signaling contributes to a TME that facilitates the development of the cancer. EMT allows cancer cells to detach from a tumor site, relocalize, and change their phenotype to a less differentiated state. When tumor growth reaches a critical point, cancerous cells deprive their environments of oxygen, resulting in hypoxia and potential metabolic shifts including the Warburg effect or oxidative phosphorylation (Sancho et al. 2016).

For Ornithology class, we were divided into groups to study bird behavior. Our group became intrigued with the competition of feeding behavior among perching birds and ground foraging birds. The main question that continued to arise was whether there was a competitive relationship between these two groups, the first question being whether perching birds attracted foraging birds or not. As birds perch on a feeder and eat, seeds fall from the feeder to the ground. From this fact, our first goal was to examine if there was a correlation if perching birds being at a feeder leads to ground forager or other unrelated groups to come near the feeder and exhibit interspecie competition. Based on this data, our next question was whether there was a level of competition present among each group and between each group. The number of birds were counted in descrete values to observe how birds interacted with one another.