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The results showed that many aspects play a role in how cells maintain a uniform rod shape as they grow. One result showed that there are two main ways that new cell wall is inserted into the cell. The first being that new cell wall is inserted in an oriented manor, which means that filaments travel around the radius of the cell and are oriented by cell radius rudders. The second is that new cell wall is inserted in an unoriented manor, this means that cell wall is inserted randomly by enzymes. Another result showed that when mreBCD was upregulated the cell rod width decreased and it became skinnier, if mreBCD was downregulated then the cell rod width increased and it became fatter. The salt shock showed that cells with upregulated mreBCD were able to maintain their rod form for a longer time than cells with lower levels. An additional result showed that when the cells were provided additional nutrients they were able to grow into a rod shape quicker. A similar result showed that when the cell was essentially tricked into thinking it had adequate nutrients it grew at the same rate showing that a kinase domain was responsible for sensing environmental nutrients.

    The way a student looks at the material of a course compared to the professor is very different. The way a teacher teaches the material by teaching the fundamentals and scaffolding that’s required in order to understand the material at a deeper level. That method of teaching shows that if the basic concepts are understood by the students, the students will remember and understand the material better by building off previous knowledge.. Albeit, while some students see the material under this light, and desire to understand how the material works, there are students who view the problems and see them as “obstacles” that need to be overcome. This means that these kinds of students see problems, and instead of thinking about “why it works”,  they think “how can I solve this problem in the easiest way possible”? For some material this method of thinking is more beneficial if a student knows the material they are learning is not a measure of their capabilities of understanding the material, but rather a measure of their intrinsic motivation to learn the material for an A. This method of “dodging” the content but still passing the course with an A is a flaw of the current education system, due to the fact that the system weighs two individuals who understand and retain the material at different levels, as equals.

Fragile X Syndrome is a dominant X- linked syndrome, meaning it affects both men and women. Since men only have one x chromosome, it effects them more frequently and with more severity. In inheritance, the father passes on Fragile X only to the daughters since sons will recieve a Y chromosome from him. If the mother has Fragile X or acts as a carrier for it, there is a 50% chance her children will be affected by it.

The Fragile X mutation was discovered in 1943 by two scientists, Bell and Martin. The disease was originally named after them, but then was renamed after it was found to a sex-linked condition with a "fragile" site on the X chromorosome. The mutation that causes Fragile X is a CGG repeat on the X that extends more than normal. Normally, it repeats between 6 and 55 times. Anything over 55 repeats is considered Fragile X.

About 50% of women with Fragile X do not show any symptoms (long face, large ears, and flat feet). Also men and women who have between 55 and 200 CGG repeats have what is called "pre-mutation" Fragile X. Pre-mutation is incomplete Fragile X but can cause multiple issues like ovarian failure and Tremor Ataxia Syndrome. If someone has 200 or more CGG repeats, they have complete Fragile X. The greater the number of repeats, the greater the severity of the effects.

The DNA is the foundation of variability. The different arrangements of four nitrogenous bases, thymine, adenine, guanine and cytosine, determine how cells function and what characteristics an orgamism possesses. An organism's genome contains millions of genes which code for proteins with a variety of functions. With a million possible bases comes a million possible errors. Each base in the genome has a probability of being switched out for the wrong base due to mutations from UV radiation, errors during DNA replication and even mutagenic substances. Mutations that arise from changing single bases are called point mutations and these account for numerous genetic disorders like muscular dystrophy, sickle-cell anemia, phenylketonuria etc. With the advent of CRISPR-Cas9 system, it is posisble to create double-stranded breaks that allow the integration of random sequences. This is useful in research settings where knockout mutations are the aim but for therapy, the traditional CRISPR/Cas9 machinery may only aggravate the disease. The need to change single nucleotides spurred the discovery of base editors. Base editors consist of inactive Cas9 scissors paired with a protein that catalyzes the desired base change. In order to circumvent potential revertion to the incorrect base by the cell's proof-reading machinery, the base editor creates a nick in the other strand of DNA. This marks that strand for correction, allowing the proof-reading machinery to integrate the correct complementary base without hindering the correction. 

The three-part experiment performed by Mizokami et al. to analyze the relationship of mesophyll conductance and change in the CO2 levels enabled them to explain the characteristic of mesophyll conductance in plants (2017). As said in the beginning, there are many studies done for the stomatal conductance, but not many for mesophyll conductance. This report has given four key discoveries to understand about the mesophyll conductance behavior. Starting on 1) decrease in mesophyll conductance to increase in CO2 is independent from the stomatal conductance. 2) The different reactions observed in mesophyll conductance for CO2 levels, and ABA application concluded how mesophyll conductance uses different mechanisms to decrease depending on the external factor. 3) Mesophyll conductance reacts better in 1% O2 than 21% O2.  4) Mesophyll conductance do not react spontaneously, rather gradually to the external environment (Mizokami et al., 2017). There were experimental error such as overestimation in the intercellular concentration, how aquaporins behave, and nitrogen balance. So, to have a better result Mizokami concludes how these factors should be considered in further studies (Mizokami et al., 2017).

Using the Primer3 software, primers were created to amplify the region of the NaN1793 mutation. These primers were chosen with respect to the fact that Sanger sequencing can only sequence about 1000 b.p. maximum, and the mutation should not be too close to either primer since the beginning and end of sequencing data is usually less accurate than the middle. The expected size of the amplicon is 874 b.p. In order to confirm that DNA was extracted from the plants and to decide which samples to take for sequencing, gel electrophoresis was run. Two gels were run. One gel contains PCR products in a ¼ dilution in T10E1 (TE) buffer while the other contains PCR products in a ¼ dilution with H2O as a control. The T10E1 diluted DNA was preferentially taken for sequencing because it protects DNA from degradation, so that DNA should be of better quality than the H2O diluted DNA. Because there was no band in the Mutant 1 lane of the TE gel, Mutant 1 was taken from the H2O gel. Mutant 2, Mutant 6, and Mutant 7 were all taken from the TE gel. The DNA was extracted and purified from the gel and was nanodropped to confirm presence of DNA and assess purity. In order to perform Sanger sequencing, a primer is needed. The forward primer is 428 b.p. from the mutation site, while the reverse primer is 447 b.p. from the mutation site. The forward primer was used for sequencing because it is closer to the mutation site.

Organisms respond to an array of different environmental stimuli. Most responses to stimuli occur through the presence of accessory structures such as ears, nose, and eyes. Within each of these larger sensory structures are sensory neurons. Information is detected though these structures in three different ways. The first way is the sense organ can be directional as it gives different signals if turned toward or away from the source of the stimulus. The second way is when signals are obtained from a pair of similar sense organs and are compared. An example of this is hearing via two different ears. The third way is signals can be compared together in time and space.

There are two strategies to treating cancer through immunotherapy: passive and active. Passive immunotherapy involves treatments with monoclonal antibodies, adoptive T cell transfers, and genetically engineered T cells, whereas active immunotherapy involves vaccine-mediated immunity via the administration of tumor-associated antigens (Banerjee et al. 2018). Due to genetic alterations or post-translational modification of proteins, cancer cells can express and display proteins that differ from their normal cell counterparts or are overexpressed in the tumor phenotype (Battaglia et al. 2016). These proteins are known as tumor-associated antigens (TAA) and fail to be recognized by the immune system. As a result, cancer cells that display TAAs are able to evade the normal destructive response of active CD8+ T cells. Cancer vaccines serve as methods of active immunotherapy that can stimulate the CD8+ T cell response to these TAAs and hopefully eradicate all cancerous cells that display them (Banerjee et al. 2018).