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Fatty acid synthesis is primarily carried out in the cytoplasm of liver cells and involves multiple processes: (1) Acetyl-CoA transport, (2) malonyl-CoA formation, and (3) synthesis cycles. Acetyl-CoA is produced in the mitochondrial matrix and must be transported to the cytoplasm. It is transported indirectly as citrate, which is then converted back to acetyl-CoA once outside. The enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) then carboxylates the acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA, the direct substrate of fatty acid synthesis. Synthesis is carried out by fatty acid synthase (FAS), an enzyme that acts as a dimer to make two fatty acid chains simultaneously. First, the cysteine amino acid on FAS is primed. Then, sequential cycles of reactions create the fatty acid, each cycle adding two carbons from malonyl-CoA with energy from NADPH. Seven cycles produce a 16-carbon chain, and all fatty acid chains produced by FAS are 16:0. Additional enzymes are then required to elongate and/or desaturate the chain to form other fatty acids. The enzyme desaturase is responsible for adding double bonds, but it is incapable of forming double bonds past the tenth carbon. Therefore, fatty acids with double bonds past the tenth carbon are acquired solely through the diet.

The sequential analysis generated a chart of 11 playful, individual behaviors that were scored as bouts for a total of 7 minutes and 54 seconds. The catalog of behaviors shows the probability (out of 1) of one behavior occurring after another in sequence. With this information, a Kinematic Graph was formed. This explains the relationship between the most frequent play behaviors that occured in sequence (Figure 2). The thickness of the arrows that connect the different behaviors show how often the sequence occurs. This makes the interpretation of the female foal play behaviors easier to interpret to analyze the foal to foal communication.

Trypanosomiasis, human African sleeping sickness generally occurs in 36 sub-Saharan African countries. This disease is a vector-borne parasitic disease and is caused by an infection with protozoan parasites and transmitted to humans by the tsetse fly. This disease not only causes severe disruption in sleep patterns, but changes in behavior, confusion and without treatment the disease can ultimately lead to death. Health officials have reported about 1447 cases of African trypanosomiasis, but many believe that the true number of cases is believed to be much higher that what is reported. Treatments of the human African trypanosomiasis include drugs named eflornithine and nifurtimox, both treatments involve a complicated set of procedures including fusions and pills that are administered in a hospital. Many of the countries where most of the cases occur; put these treatments out of reach for many patients because of its complexity. The new drug, fexindazole, is a much simpler treatment in which it can be taken as a once-a-day pill for 10 days without having to be hospitalized. After the DNDi (Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative), a nonprofit organization, teamed up with drug maker Sanofi, they could test the drug on patients and apply for an EMA recommendation for the drug itself. The EMA has just recently approved of the drug and have expressed a “positive opinion” for the fexindazole, opening opportunities for patients to receive treatment earlier and help slow the spread of the disease as well. 

The visual system of most deep sea organisms is able to detect short-wave blue wavelengths. Loosejaw dragonfish are able to detect longer wavelengths of light and emit these wavelengths as the color red through bioluminescence. Because red light does not penetrate deep into the ocean, the red visual system allows organisms with the adaptation to communicate with each other specifically, and in addition, it allows predators to catch unsuspecting prey by surprise using bioluminescence. This paper focuses on uncovering the evolutionary history of this phenotype in the family of Stomiidae. The authors sought to understand the timing of the evolution, the number of times the trait evolved, and whether it arose due to positive selection. The findings for the evolution of the red visual system were more complex than expected. The red visual system was found to have evolved once as a single evolutionary event within loosejaws. They found that at approximately 15.4 Ma, far red visual systems evolved and at 11.2 Ma the primitive blue visual system re-appeared in the most recent common ancestor of dragonfish. The authors also investigate the phylogenetic relationships between Stomiidae and found that the relationship between this family and loosejaws is paraphyletic. The significance of this study in the context of spectral tuning in deep sea organisms is that it provides a phylogenetic approach to analyzing the evolution of the red visual system.

Losses, as a result of invasive species arise when there are decreases in agricultural yield, loss of biodiversity, and/or increased spending on herbicides and pesticides used to control the invasive population. With greater knowledge on the invader's impact, we could potentially pinpoint the source of greatest loss and manage the associated problems accordingly. This research could perhaps be crucial in protecting our food sources, our local environments, and reducing the uses of herbicides and pesticides.

         The bio-archeological dataset from Radovic et al. comprises cranial pathology measurements and cranial age assessment for 113 individuals from four Mesolithic-Neolithic sites in the Danube Gorges, Serbia. One of the characteristics the data quantify is the surface wear of left mandibular molars. The occlusal surface of each molar is divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant received a surface wear score, in which low values indicate no or little wear and high values indicate substantial tooth wear. We are interested in whether there is a difference in the mean tooth wear of the first quadrant of molar one and the first quadrant of molar three. The null hypothesis is that there is no difference in the mean tooth wear between the first quadrant of molar one and the first quadrant of molar three, and the alternative hypothesis is there is a difference in the mean tooth wear between the first quadrant of molar one and the first quadrant of molar three because first molars erupt much earlier than third molars and thus experience many more years of wear. The method of analysis chosen was a two-sample t-test. The t-value was 8.7324, meaning the difference between the group mean values is large relative to the amount of variation in the groups. The p-value is 1.042e-15, meaning there is a less than 5% chance of getting the observed result, or a more extreme result, if the null hypothesis is true, which means the data does not support the null hypothesis. In conclusion, there is a significant difference in the mean surface wear of the first quadrants of molars one and three.

The documentary focuses on how homo sapiens were able to adapt to multiple environments in various locations without becoming extinct. They had incredible features to withstand harsh climates and tough living conditions and eventually pass their genes to future generations. Our earliest ancestors lived in hot, dry climates in Africa while later on, others lived in isolated freezing temperatures up to -40 ℉. Moreover, certain groups of homo sapiens adapted to live in dry lands with little access to water while others lived by the ocean and depended on sea animals for survival. Homo sapiens acquired valuable skills to allow the creation of sophisticated tools for hunting and consumption of nutrient rich foods, which together expanded the capacities of the brain. Over time, human brains expanded and become capable of performing more complex tasks. The findings of Lucy show how much smaller our brains were when the species first appeared. Paleontologists and archaeologists from around the world have found groundbreaking evidence through fossils and genetic DNA sequencing to find that there are overlapping similarities between the different groups such as Denisovans, Neanderthals, and Homo Sapiens.

                 The complete set of chromosomes possessed by an organism is called its karyotype. An organism’s karyotype is usually presented as a picture of metaphase chromosomes lined up in descending order of their size. Karyotypes are prepared from actively dividing cells, such as white blood cells, bone marrow cells, or cells from meristematic tissues of plants. After treatment with a chemical (such as colchicine) that prevents them from entering anaphase, the cells are chemically preserved. They are then burst open to release the chromosomes onto a microscope slide, and the chromosomes are stained and photographed. The photograph is then enlarged, and the individual chromosomes are cut out and arranged in a karyotype. For human chromosomes, karyotypes are routinely prepared by automated machines, which scan a slide using a video camera attached to a microscope, looking for a chromosome spread (a group of chromosomes that are well separated). When a spread has been located, the camera takes a picture of the chromosomes, the image is digitized, and the chromosomes are sorted and arranged electronically by a computer.