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Like that of nucleic acids, the molecular structure of proteins has several levels of the organization. The primary structure of a protein is its sequence of amino acids. Through interactions between neighboring amino acids, a polypeptide chain folds and twists into a secondary structure. Two common secondary structures found in proteins are the beta (β) pleated sheet and the alpha (α) helix. Secondary structures interact and fold further to form a tertiary structure, which is the overall, three-dimensional shape of the protein. The secondary and tertiary structures of a protein are largely determined by the primary structure—the amino acid sequence—of the protein. Finally, some proteins consist of two or more polypeptide chains that associate to produce a quaternary structure. Many proteins have an additional level of organization defined by domains. A domain is a group of amino acids that forms a discrete functional unit within the protein. For example, there are several different types of protein domains that function in DNA binding.

Bird songs can be represented visually. With modern technology, sonograms can be created from the song recordings. However, before being able to read a sonogram, there are some teminology that must be used reviewed. In order to be familiar to birds’ vocalization, terms such as:  Amplitude (maximum energy), Fundamental tone, Frequency (number of complete cycles per unit of time), Glissando (bleeding of one tone into the next), Harmonic (a tone in the series of overtones produced by a fundamental tone), Hertz (one cycle per second), Modulation (form of a sound: carrier wave), Oscillograph (a device that records oscillations as a continuous graph), Overtone , Pitch (relative position of a tone in a scale, as determined by its frequency), Resonance (intensification and prolongation of a sound), Sinusoidal waveform (y=sin x), Sonogram (display of the frequency of a sound related to time), and Tone (distinct pitch and quality) are necessary for a better understanding of birds.

Hummingbirds have a high daily energy requirement for their size compared to other organisms including humans. The average sized human requires 2,000-2,500 kcal/day whereas a 3.5kg hummingbird requires 7.65kcal/day. If humans needed the same average intake as hummingbirds it would require about 800 can of coke in a day to meet the caloric requirements. Hummingbirds have high metabolic rates and various adaptions to make this work. They have a sufficient oxygen delivery system to tissues, rapid conversion of oxygen and nutrients to ATP, a high capacity to transport stored nutrients to fuel, and a digestive capacity to supply uptake of nutrients at sufficient rates. Hummingbirds muscle morphology is also highly adapted to suit their lifestyles. They have high capillary density to support high rates of oxygen delivery along with a high mitochondrial density.

SNPs that Promethease categorizes as  “not set” are ones that have no distinct “good” or “bad” repute. One of these identified in this Promethease report is rs11803731(A;A), a SNP  which is associated with hair curliness. The genotype that is homozygous for the “T” allele is associated with curlier hair, whereas the homozygous “A” genotype is associated with straighter hair. This individual has the homozygous “A” genotype, which means that they likely have hair that is less curly and on the straighter side. rs11803731 is found on the Trichohyalin (TCHH) gene which, according to a study of Australians of European ancestry, accounts for an estimated 6% of the variance in hair morphology. The TCHH gene codes for trichohyalin, a protein that is highly expressed in hair follicles and the innermost layer of the hair shaft, as well as being detected in other places such as areas of the epidermis, in the hard palate, and in the nail matrix. Trichohyalin links the heads and tails of keratin chains and is therefore involved in the cross-linking of keratin intermediate filaments, overall contributing to the mechanical strength of the inner sheath of root follicles and other keratinized epithelial tissues.

We will be comparing dietary style of bird species in relation to habitat type, and the effects these different habitats have upon beak shape and size. We will use the University of Massachusetts Amherst avian collection to collect data on bill length, depth, and width from preserved bird skins. We will use this collection because it will allow us to compare beak measurements of different species using a primary source of data. We will also use reliable ornithology research articles to find information on habitat types, behavior, and diet that will be used to compare bird species. The goal of this study is to analyze differences between beak size and shape, habitat and how they obtain their food. We aim to explore the proximate cause of distinct beak morphology of species by investigating the effects that different environmental pressures and/or dietary constraints have on the beak shape of birds. We seek to determine whether cohabiting species local to New England, as represented by specimens available from the UMass Amherst Ornithology collection, display trends of beak size and shape variation according to distinct dietary needs according to habitat, and analyze what that may mean in regards to how those species interact with one another and their shared ecosystem.

The main point of this paper is that sea urchin predation caused macroevolutionary changes in crinoids. Although sea urchins are more commonly known as grazers and predators that feed on coral, evidence of sea urchin bite marks on crinoids suggests a predator-prey relationship between the two. Data collected by the authors show that bite mark frequencies increased with sea urchin diversity. It also showed that frequencies of bite marks on sessile crinoids was higher than those of motile crinoids. The authors of the study hypothesize that crinoids evolved motility as a response against sea urchin predation during the Triassic. This conclusion seems plausible because motile crinoids have become more abundant than sessile crinoids in recent history. Overall, sea urchin predation on crinoids was measured by bite-mark frequencies, and the predator-prey interaction led to macroevolutionary changes in crinoids.

The conclusions that can be drawn from the results is that Sulfolobus Spindle Shaped Virus (SSV) developed an escape mutation whenever a dip in the bacterial population of Sulfolobus was observed. This means that at any of these instances the SSV was able to mutate to again be able to kill the Sulfolobus. On the graph when there was more diversity and distribution within the immune systems of Sulfolobus the bacterial cells were significantly less susceptible to SSV infection. From the results it can also be concluded that Sulfolobus and SSV have a mutualistic relationship. The SSV uses host machinery to create and secrete a toxin that kills healthy uninfected cells. This also implies that infected cells are immune to the toxin is that the SSV provides infected cells with an antitoxin keeping them safe. This relationship is considered mutualism because the bacterial cells essentially want to be infected in order to survive.

Jaguars are an endangered species whose populations began to fall in the mid 1900s due to excessive poaching and hunting. Human development has also decreaed their populations, between building expansions and an increase in agricultural fields. Conservation should give this species top priority because jaguar populations continue to decline and suffer as a direct result of human impact. As a keystone species, jaguars help maintain balance in the food chain as the top predator by controlling populations of subspecies. Ecology can help conserve this species through the protection and conservation of designated habitat patches and corridors so that jaguars may be allowed space which will allow for the ability to survive and grow. Providing protection for the connectivity between different landscapes will allow the jaguars to be able to expand their population gene pool, which will then in turn create a healthier, more stable population. Ecology itself will allow humans to better understand changes in populations, and how more space will allow for increased population growth.

Success for the offspring of the azuki bean weevils are determined by the oviposition preferences of the female bean weevil. The choice of the female determines the food source for the larvae, and because following pupation, the beetle does not consume food or water for the rest of its life, the initial decision is crucial. In experiments that test for preferences, it was found that the azuki bean weevil had a high preference for the cowpea legume out of five beans- cowpea, mung bean, azuki bean, kidney bean, and soybean. The number of eggs per cowpea when the female was given a choice revealed roughly 6 eggs per female on the cowpea, and zero eggs per female on the kidney bean. Those laid on cowpeas revealed a reduced developmental and adult emergence rate, suggesting that the choice was beneficial to offspring success.