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Electrocardiograms measure the electrical impulse of the heart. There are 5 different intervals: p, q,r,s, and t. The p wave is a measure of the atrial depolarization. Q, R, and S are thought of as the QRS complex, which measures ventricular depolarization and also atrial repolarization. Becasue ventrical depolarization is more powerful, the atrial repolarization cannot be seen easily. The t wave represents ventrical repolarization. To calculate heart rate from an ECG, you divide 1,5000 by the number of boxes inbetween the two R intervals. A normal heart rate is between 60 and 100 bpm. When the heart rate is below 60 it is called bradycardia, and when the heart rate is above 100 it is called trachycardia. There are many abnormalities that cause an ECG to appear funky. An AV blockage can cause the ECG to appear like the p wave is moving around or like it is missing an QRS complex. Right bundle branch blockage (RBBB) can make the R intervals appear to be next to each other. Left bundle branch blockage (LBBB) can cause the S wave to appear like abnormal. Preventricular contraction (PVC) can cause random abnormalities through out the entire ECG. Left ventricular hypertension can cause the S segment to appear extremely long. Right ventricular hypertension can cause the R segment to be extremely elongated. 

Laboratories are classified based upon biosafety levels that range from biosafety 1 to biosafety 4. Biosafety level 4 is considered the most dangerous of the classifications. This classification is so dangerous because the pathogens studied in these labs are easily transmitted, have a high mortality rate, and have no known cure. An example of a pathogen studied in a biosafety level 4 laboratory would be the Ebola virus. While the Ebola virus is only spread through direct contact with the infected hosts fluids it can pose a huge threat if it is released. There are many safety precautions that are associated with a biosafety level 4 laboratory. One precaution is that everyone entering the lab must decontaminate themselves, this is also true for exiting the facility. When in the lab all personnel must wear a positive pressure suit, this ensures that even if the suit is cut or damage no airflow will be allowed into the suit. Any air entering the facility is filtered and any air leaving is double filtered. Biosafety level 4 laboratories must remain secure at all times or they could pose an incredible threat to the general public.    

The use of cannabis has become widespread, especially among young adults. It was found that the use of cannabis was associated with an increased risk of depression and suicidal ideations within young adults. An active ingredient in cannabis is THC, which affects the brain by binding to the cannabinoid receptors. When THC binds it disrupts various mental and physical functions. A natural neurotransmitter that binds to the cannabinoid receptor is anandamide, which influences pleasure, memory, thinking, concentration, movement, coordination, sensory and time perception. THC acts as an agonist and binds in the cannabinoid receptor.

          In this experiment, acid-catalyzed dehydration of cyclohexanol using phosphoric acid was performed in order to synthesize cyclohexene and analyze the product. Following fractional distillation, the product resulted in a 28% yield of cyclohexene. This low yield could have been caused by a combination of transfer loss, insufficiently thorough mixing during the wash, or incomplete removal of impurities. This product was analyzed through a series of tests to detect the presence of alkenes that would be expected in a successful reaction. The two chemical tests confirmed the presence of alkenes by exhibiting the expected color changes. In the bromine dichloromethane test, the vial containing the product remained clear despite the dropwise addition of the brownish-red chemical, indicating that the alkene reacted with bromine to form a colorless dibromide. In contrast, the vial containing cyclohexane briefly turned a reddish-orange color upon the dropwise addition of the chemical, indicating no reaction. In the potassium permanganate test, the vial containing the product turned brown, indicating the purple chemical reacted with the alkenes to produce a colorless diol and a finely-divided brown precipitate of manganese dioxide. In contrast, the dropwise addition of the chemical into the vial of cyclohexane resulted in a purple solution, indicating no reaction. The product was further analyzed by gas chromatography. The resulting GC trace displayed only one peak of 0.299. IR spectroscopy was also used to analyze the sample. The known absorption frequency for an alkenyl is approximately 3083, and the experimental absorption frequency was 3063.09. The known absorption frequency for an alkene is 1644, and the experimental absorption frequency was 1653.07. The experimental values were close enough to the expected values to confirm the presence of cyclohexene.

It is crucial to note that Group 6 did not have a 50 mM NaCl brain to image and therefore could not accurately compare data with the class average for this salt concentration to draw any significant conclusions. However, upon examining the system water and nanopure lines against the 50 mM NaCl and 100 mM NaCl lines throughout the brain for the class, there is no clear trend of the two salt lines with increased cell counts, which does not support the hypothesis. Although the 50 mM NaCl line had higher cell counts than the system water and nanopure in the hypothalamus, the 100 mM NaCl line had similar cell numbers to the two lines without salt. A similar result is seen in the class data of the lateral recess: 100 mM NaCl had slightly higher counts than the system water and nanopure lines, but 50 mM NaCl had lower counts than the two lines without salt. Perhaps this Group 6 100 mM NaCl brain is a true outlier in cell proliferation numbers due to experimental treatment, or perhaps differences may be explained through variation in cell counting and techniques. The members of Group 6 obtained this brain from a separate experimental vial given by a TA and did not dissect it themselves, which may have contributed to the variation in cell numbers seen.

Using spinach leaves, we extracted the chloroplasts and observed the rate of photosynthesis in various concentrations of water.  We created a control group in DI water, and two experimental groups- one in tap water with the other in salt water. The rate of the light-dependent reactions was monitored by comparing the absorbance of light in a spectrophotometer at 600 nanometers. As the DCPIP used in the experiment is reduced, the absorbance of light decreases. Similarly, the first stage of photosynthesis involves extraction of electrons from water by light energy for reduction. Knowing this, if the concentration of water increases within the plant cell, then the rate of the light-dependent reactions should increase as plants require water in the first step of photosynthesis. If our hypothesis is correct, the data would reveal that the chloroplasts exposed to tap water have a significantly lower absorbance over time than the chloroplasts exposed to salt water, where the concentration of H2O is less.

Birds molt during the warm seasons before the breeding season begins. It usually cost 25% to 40% of the total energy. The new feather production requires large production of proteins so they must eat more than any other season to grow faster. Therefore, molting in the warm season is advantageous because the bird can eat more and molt faster. The American Redstart is a common bird found in North America that is well study for its molting strategy. The male has a bright red orange feathers for the breeding season. They molt right after they care for their young. They migrate so the day to departure the area depends on how fast the male is able to molt into this bright color or not. If the male can leave the young early enough, they succeed to molt in this color, but if they are late, the molting will not be complete. This results the late molting males to have a lower breeding rate than the ones that completed their molting.

The zebrafish  (Dania rerio) model has become popular for studying epilepsy and even other neurodevelopmental disorders, as they possess certain features that make them ideal for the study of neural circuits. Zebrafish embryos and larvae develop externally and are optically transparent. This makes it easy to monitor the development of major organs as the zebrafish embryos progress from stage to stage (Monesson-Olson et al., 2018). Moreover, larval zebrafish undergo rapid development; sensory and motor systems are present and functional within five days post-fertilization (Monesson-Olson et al., 2018). The ability to generate large clutch sizes of 50-200 embryos adds to the favorability of zebrafish. Zebrafish, as model organisms, also hold great advantage because they have less complex central nervous systems compared to mammals, yet the cell types and mechanisms are conserved among vertebrates. Logistically, their small size and low cost of maintaining large colonies of adult wildtype and mutant fish make the use of zebrafish viable (reviewed by Baraban et al., 2010).

If all domestic dogs are being killed at a terrible speed and there is a vaccine that can save one pregnant mother and her puppies the breed of dog that should be saved is Labrador Retrievers. This breed is America’s most popular dog breed, that is due to its lovable energetic nature that makes them stand out amongst other dogs. Labrador dogs are hard working and can be spotted in many different services. They can be seen working at airports helping security, working with the police force, being guide dogs, emotional support dogs, and being faithful companions to families. Labradors are known for having great intelligence and being very friendly. The breed is highly energetic but at the same time obedient and well trained. This would be the ideal dog to save, one that can provide different services for the benefit of others and also be a loyal companion and friend.

Birds have a different style of migrating and they also use different things to help them travel long distances. First, they use visual landmarks such as highways, railways, and rivers to help them migrate even if the routes are not direct. For example, some waterfowl follow watercourses to help them migrate but often they are scared to cross open bodies water unless it’s windy. Birds also use the sun and the stars as compasses. For a long time, scientists were curious that birds traveled by the sun but, they did not know how they do it. Common starlings and homing pigeons follow the sun to lead them home and will not travel until they can see the sun. On the other hand, land birds and waterfowl maintain their directions at night by using the stars as their source of direction. Baby Indigo cannot navigate without seeing the stars when it’s their first time flying. In order for them to fly, they need to see the stars regularly during their first month in order for them to see their migratory paths.