Perfect Paragraph

The Kelly and Sears (2011) paper (“Limb specialization in living marsupial and eutherian mammals: constraints on mammalian limb evolution”) aimed to test the argument that the functional requirement of newborn marsupials to crawl to the teat is constraining the evolution of marsupial forelimbs. The paper was based on two core hypotheses: first, that marsupial forelimbs are less specialized than eutherian (placental mammal) forelimbs; and second, that marsupials tend to have more specialized hind limbs whereas eutherians tend to have more specialized forelimbs. The first hypothesis was based on the fact that marsupial forelimbs show a small range of possible forms, are very similar among different functional groups, and are less morphologically different from the average mammal than eutherian forelimbs are. The second hypothesis was based on the fact that marsupial young are born with highly developed forelimbs and shoulders, as they are born premature and need to crawl up to the mother’s teat immediately after birth so they can attach and finish developing. Because specialized morphology is necessary at such an early time in marsupial development, the theory is that it prevents variation in the development of the forelimbs and thus reduces the likelihood that they will evolve and specialize. However, marsupials do not use their hind limbs in this post-birth crawl, which leaves them free to diverge and specialize as they develop. Eutherians, on the other hand, tend to have forelimbs that are more specialized than their hind limbs. The proposed theory for this is that eutherian hind limbs are functionally important to locomotion and this constrains how much their morphology can vary, but the forelimbs are not used for locomotion and this leaves them free to evolve and diversify—the opposite of the pattern of limb specialization seen in marsupials.

The inter species interaction that I decided to use for my project was between a tree and the Ivy branches climbing the trees. I started my search for pictures of this interaction by walking along the West side of North Pleasant St between Puffton village and UMass Amherst campus. While there were several examples of this interaction along this route, I wanted to look for a example that had a thick layer of Ivy branches going up at least 10 ft in the tree and a tree that was more than a foot in diameter. The example I picked for this was a tree in front of Puffton Village, approximately 100 ft from the first intersect For the individual species I took a photo of the Ivy branches from approximately 1 foot away from their side to try and isolate them in a picture. For the tree I searched around for another tree in the nearby area that did not have any Ivy branches climbing its trunk and used that for the picture. For the interaction pictures I took two pictures both from around 5 ft away from the tree. The first angled downward showing the base of the tree as well as the Ivy branches coming out of the ground and climbing the base of the tree. The second was angled slightly upward, showing the Ivy branches climbing higher up the tree wrapping around the branches of the tree. After taking these 4 photos I proceeded to return home and upload them to my computer to prepare for construction of my figure.

TNF-related apoptotic-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a naturally-occurring cytokine that assists in initiating the extrinsic apoptotic process. TRAIL is a useful aspect of cancer therapy due to its death receptor binding properties for DR4 and DR5. This must be taken into account when engineering targeted treatments so normal, healthy tissue is not targeted and subsequently destroyed. ONC201, a hydrophilic small molecule, regulates the expression of TRAIL and can be put inside a liposome and transported into pancreatic adenocarcinomas. In an effort to regulate the specificity of this therapy, receptors as well as antibodies can be incorporated into the surface of the liposome that bind to pancreatic adenocarcinoma-specific antigens, such as MUC-1 and CA 19-9. In this way, a more resistant, targeted treatment for this cancer can be developed.

The idea of engineering a liposome with three monoclonal antibodies attached to one liposome presents a daunting challenge.  Additionally, the binding affinity between each monoclonal antibody to its antigen must be considered carefully. It is important that the interaction between each antibody and antigen is relatively weak.  If one is too strong, the liposome will bind and inject its contents to healthy cells that merely express the antigen in normal levels, leading to cell death. To prevent metastasis, it will be possible to engineer liposomes with the respective antibodies for the three surface antigens as needed.  However, if these tumors mutate and/or metastasize and lose the overexpression of CA125, KASH5, or HSF1, assaying the new tumor cells and designing a new treatment in a timely manner will likely be an insurmountable task.   

A correlational study was conducted in attempt to see if blood pressure and brain volume are correlated. A MRI, which stands for magnetic resonance imaging was used to measure volume of the brain along with the blood pressure. Younger individuals presented a lower brain volume. The findings were concerning due to the fact that the participants were healthy. Which lead to the questions of if there were any other indications that could lead to a lower brain volume. The study that was conducted was a correlational study and we have to keep in mind that correlation does not cause causation. Though the brain is important to the body because all functions are based off the brain. The brain is part of the central nervous system (CNS) and the CNS is important for integrating information that is obtained and use it. The gray matter that is developed in the brain is where the neurons are housed and if having less of the gray matter could affect daily functions.

Allergies affect roughly 50 million Americans but are not well understood from a scientific standpoint. In an analysis from 2017 which used hospital admissions for anaphylaxis as a guideline, they found that food allergy rates have nearly doubled and that climate change is increasing the amount of pollen in the United States. The analysis helped deduce the most common allergies in America. They found that rye, followed by dust mites (D. farinae and D. pteronyssinus) are the most common allergies affecting approximately 20% of the population. Food, as well as indoor allergens, are much lower on the list and affect a small percent of the population (2%). This data was taken from a representative sample but the analysis found that tracking allergies is a difficult process. They noted that self-reported data is unreliable and gaining access to private diagnostic data is tricky because of patient confidentiality.

The studying of ecology, the ways in which different organisms interact with each other and their environments, could prove itself to be very useful in my field of study. This is because many of our medicines have been derived from other organisms directly or about what we’ve learned in these organisms’ behavioral patterns. For example, one of the most recent studies on lobsters provides evidence that humans may be able to slow down the body’s aging process by essentially reconstructing and imitating the telomerase cells found in lobsters. These cells make the lobster biologically immortal as they can live for many years if they avoid being eaten. Without our ability to study these animals’ interactions in their communities we would have never came across such an interesting study.  

Observations are based upon the attention and gained information from something using the five senses. They are experienced first hand, and help to reach an inference. An inference is the logical explanation of the observation, or the conclusion drawn based on the evidence. It can be a second hand experience. An instance of using the two is in the scenario with the spike worms and silk worms we received on the first day of this class. When given the small plastic cups, the first thing we did was observe the mysterious object handed to us. We used our senses to see that the object was small and tan in color. We watched the object rear up on its tiny stubby legs and make its way around the edges of the cup. We noticed that one side of the object’s body was slightly darker than the rest of the body. There were several other factors about the object that we were visually able to observe. Had we physically touched the object’s body or utilized our keen sense of smell and hearing, we may have had further observations. Using these specific observations we then began to make conclusions. The big brown eyes on the darker, posterior end of the body had the visible characteristics of eyes, so using this observation and our knowledge of eyes, we could infer that they were eyes. The object was moving independently and displayed characteristics similar to a worm (the body is shaped long and has many legs), therefore we could make the inference that the object is a living organism that is or is related to a worm. Eventually using external resources online and comparing our observations of the object to real photos of worms, we could conclude that it was a spike worm. I have now been keeping the worm and carefully observing it for multiple weeks now. I have observed that the worm now has ceased its movement and grown a brown, hard exterior around the entire body. It appears to be a cocoon, and because I have knowledge that worms can alter their body composition into moths or flies, I can infer that because my worm is in a cocoon now, it is undergoing metamorphosis and will transform into either a moth or fly. I am able to make an inference based upon primary observation and also secondary knowledge.

Proteins have complex structures that determine the many functions proteins will perform in the body, and these structures are a result of the endless combinations of the 20 biological amino acids. There are four levels of protein structure. The primary structure of a protein is simply its amino acid sequence. Covalent peptide bonds between the amino and carboxyl groups of amino acids form, building a polypeptide chain. The secondary structure is the structure of the polypeptide backbone, excluding the R groups of the amino acids. It involves hydrogen bonds that stabilize alpha-helices and beta-sheets formed. The tertiary structure factors in the chemistry of the R groups, finalizing the overall structure of the protein, which can be globular or fibrous in form. R groups can be nonpolar, polar and uncharged, positively charged, or negatively charged. Depending on the proximity of these groups, different structures can result from the non-covalent electrostatic interactions. Finally, the quaternary structure is only relevant to proteins that are composed of multiple polypeptides. It involves the various electrostatic interactions between the different subunits within the overall protein.

Cardiovascular disease in diabetics is caused by a combination of three factors including lipid control, glucose control, and blood pressure. Lipid control is thought to be the most influential in contributing to cardiovascular disease. Often, cardiovascular problems can arise from the development of atherosclerosis which is at an increased risk in diabetics. Atherosclerosis is the hardening and narrowing of blood vessels which leads to increased blood pressure. Poor glucose control or resistance to insulin causes a lack of nitric oxide production which is important in maintaining vascular flow. The lack of sufficient nitric oxide leads to an increase in plaque formation within the blood vessels. This increase in plaque buildup prohibits smooth blood flow through the vessels. Another diabetic complication is neuropathy. Neuropathy is caused by a metabolic cascade resulting from a lack of glycemic control, a long duration of diabetes, and potentially vascular abnormalities. Hyperglycemia causes the polyol pathway to produce more sorbitol from glucose, but at the same time this process consumes NADPH which results in less cofactor available for glutathione reductase. This inhibits the cells’ ability to respond to oxidative stress or the imbalance between antioxidants and free radicals in one’s body. Too many free radicals cause chemical chain reactions due to their high reactivity. Conversely, anti-oxidants have been proposed to prevent generation of free radicals (or reduce the impact of free radicals). Oxidative stress can alter nerve blood supply, nerve structure, and endoneural metabolism. High glucose levels also are found to be directly correlated with the production of advanced glycation end-products (AGE). AGE’s are produced by a chemical transformation of sugars binding to amino acids or fats. High blood glucose levels and increased fat/lipid levels can lead to the production of AGE’s. When AGE interacts with receptors (RAGE) it can further lead to oxidative stress. A test was run with rats where RAGE is expressed in endothelial and Schwann cells. Incubation of these neuronal and Schwann cells with AGE’s leads to cell death. Vascular complications can also lead to neuropathy through poor glycemic control. Similar to cardiovascular disease, the lack of glycemic control results in a buildup of plaque in the blood vessels ultimately ending in atherosclerosis. The lack of blood flow causes damage to the peripheral nervous system thus leading to complications such as neuropathy and foot ulcers.