Writing in Biology

Cardiovascular disease in diabetics is caused by a combination of three factors including lipid control, glucose control, and blood pressure. Lipid control is thought to be the most influential in contributing to cardiovascular disease. Often, cardiovascular problems can arise from the development of atherosclerosis which is at an increased risk in diabetics. Atherosclerosis is the hardening and narrowing of blood vessels which leads to increased blood pressure. Poor glucose control or resistance to insulin causes a lack of nitric oxide production which is important in maintaining vascular flow. The lack of sufficient nitric oxide leads to an increase in plaque formation within the blood vessels. This increase in plaque buildup prohibits smooth blood flow through the vessels. Another diabetic complication is neuropathy. Neuropathy is caused by a metabolic cascade resulting from a lack of glycemic control, a long duration of diabetes, and potentially vascular abnormalities. Hyperglycemia causes the polyol pathway to produce more sorbitol from glucose, but at the same time this process consumes NADPH which results in less cofactor available for glutathione reductase. This inhibits the cells’ ability to respond to oxidative stress or the imbalance between antioxidants and free radicals in one’s body. Too many free radicals cause chemical chain reactions due to their high reactivity. Conversely, anti-oxidants have been proposed to prevent generation of free radicals (or reduce the impact of free radicals). Oxidative stress can alter nerve blood supply, nerve structure, and endoneural metabolism. High glucose levels also are found to be directly correlated with the production of advanced glycation end-products (AGE). AGE’s are produced by a chemical transformation of sugars binding to amino acids or fats. High blood glucose levels and increased fat/lipid levels can lead to the production of AGE’s. When AGE interacts with receptors (RAGE) it can further lead to oxidative stress. A test was run with rats where RAGE is expressed in endothelial and Schwann cells. Incubation of these neuronal and Schwann cells with AGE’s leads to cell death. Vascular complications can also lead to neuropathy through poor glycemic control. Similar to cardiovascular disease, the lack of glycemic control results in a buildup of plaque in the blood vessels ultimately ending in atherosclerosis. The lack of blood flow causes damage to the peripheral nervous system thus leading to complications such as neuropathy and foot ulcers.

Exercising on a regular basis can help maintain low blood sugars for type 1 and type 2 diabetics. When exercising insulin sensitivity increases which allows cells in the body to take up insulin in order to break down glucose. Sometimes there is a delayed effect on blood glucose when exercising. It can take up to 24 hours after physical activity for blood glucose levels to be affected. This is important especially if blood glucose levels are already low as physical activity can lead to hypoglycemia. Keeping a healthy blood glucose level due to exercise can help benefit the long-term effects of diabetes. It can surpass the chance of developing complications such as neuropathy, hyperglycemia, and retinopathy.

On February 10th the larva that I had turned into a fly. The pupa stayed in its shell for five days befor it emerged from the shell. The pupa was a dark brown color and about an inch in length with a cylinder shape. There were small black ridges surrounding it and on one end there was a white ridge. The fly emerged from the side that did not have the white ridge, it created a small opening and got out. The fly explored the small container for a couple hours walking back and forth. The fly was black throughout and had transluscent wings. It had three legs on each side of its body for a total of six. I took the fly out to the trash room and placed on top of a garbage can. At first the fly struggled to walk it moved its wings a couple of times but could not make it more than two inches off of the ground. Fairly quickly the fly adjusted to its new enviornment and started to fly and it flew around the room.

Observations are based upon using the five senses to pay close attention to something and gain information from. They are experienced first hand, and help to reach an inference. An inference is the logical explanation of the observation, or the conclusion drawn based on evidence and can be a second hand experience. An instance of using the two is in the scenario with the spike worms and silk worms we received on the first day of this class. When given the small plastic cups, the first thing we did was observe the mysterious object handed to us. We used our senses to see that the object was small and tan in color. We watched the object rear up on its tiny stubby legs and make its way around the edges of the cup. We noticed that one side of the object’s body was slightly darker than the rest of the body. There were several other factors about the object that visually we could observe. Had we physically touched the object’s body or smelled it or listened to it, we may have had further observations. Using these specific observations we then began to make conclusions. The big brown eyes on the darker end of the body have the visible characteristics of eyes, so we can infer that they are eyes. The object is moving independently and has the characteristics likewise to a worm, therefore we can make the inference based on appearance that the object is a living organism that is or related to a worm. Eventually using external resources online and comparing our observations of the object we could conclude that it was a spike worm. I have now been keeping the worm and carefully observing it for multiple weeks now. I have observed that the worm now has ceased its movement and grown a brown, harder exterior covering the entire body. It appears to be a cocoon, and because I have knowledge that worms can alter their body composition into moths or flies, I can infer that because my worm is in a cocoon now, it is undergoing metamorphosis and will transform into either a moth or fly. I am able to make an inference based upon primary observation and also secondary knowledge.

I've always been interested in the nervous system becasue it is such a unique system within the body. Nerves span the entire human body, receiving and sending out signals that allow us to move, feel, think, see, etc. The neurons of the nervous system communicate with one another across synapses, which are the spaces between the neurons. Neurotransmitters travel across these synapses and bind to receptors on the next neuron, effectively passing on the message. The central nervous system is especially important. It includes the spine and brain, which integrate signals from all of our senses. The brain sends incoming signals to different areas of the brain to be interpreted and sent back out to the body. Multiple signals are interpreted at once for all of the things we do. There is also a lot of internal communication we are unaware of. It's amazing how we are able to live our lives, moving, eating, seeing, experiencing, feeling, thinking, and so much more, because our nervous system is able to integrate all the signals that intake and output. The simple ability to think about moving my hand and actually being able to move it however I want is amazing. The speed at which our body communicates internally is impossibly fast. One thing that I have yet to know about is how emotions play into the central nervous system. When someone is sad or in love or mad, how does that show in our brains, and why? I've always been curious if there is a clearcut explanation for emotional feelings. Is there a reason some people are more sensitive than others or more empathetic? Is there an explanation within the nervous system for why some people have anger management issues or an inclination to cry? 

          The shift from hunter/gatherers to farmers to larger urban settlements falls under the first epidemiological transition. Hunter/gatherers experienced “heirloom diseases” which followed them from their primate ancestry, such as lice, insect bites, parasites, and other zoonoses (animal borne). Infectious diseases were not very common due to low population density. The transition to farmers led to larger groups, more waste, contaminated water, and closer animal contact, and diseases included scrub typhus from grasses. Anthrax and TB from animals, schistosomiasis from snails in irrigation canals, malaria from mosquitoes, etc. Larger urban settlements developed into cities of 50,000 people by 5,000 years ago and 200,000 people by 3000 years ago. This accelerated all the problems from farms, with increased population density, waste, and water contamination, and more infectious diseases like smallpox, measles, flu, mumps, cholera, and plague from rodents with fleas. The plague came to Europe from China and wiped out 30-60% (25-50 million) of the european population, leading to social disruption/violence, decline in farming due to labor shortages (created famine), change in feudal relations, and eventually, higher salaries and innovations in technology, which sped up socioeconomic change. The colonization of the Americas led to the spread of disease between colonizers and indigenous populations, with smallpox, measles, and influenza having a particularly devastating impact on natives by eliminating 60-90% of their population. This accelerated the conquest and contributed to the transition of forced labor away from natives and towards enslaved Africans.

The main genetic difference between humans and chimps is that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes whereas chimps have 24 pairs of chromosomes in their genomes. Two ancestral chromosome pairs fuse at their telomeres to form human chromosome 2 during evolution. Humans and chimps are two species that are very closely related to each other. Humans and chimps have 1.2% of non-coding DNA difference in their genomes that are responsible for all the unmatching characteristics of humans and chimps.The human genome contains 46 chromosomes while chimp genome contains 48 chromosomes. The main genetic difference between humans and chimps is the number of chromosomes.

The way society views alcohol is largely based on what we see from ads. The attitude towards drinking has been enhanced tremendously because of the incredible job the alcohol industry does of making drinking look appealing, and making it more socially acceptable. One of the ads I watched showed a famous actor and actress touring through America and talking drinking. They say that drinking is for anyone. The working class deserves time off and deserves a party and that must include bud light. That ads to the cultural attitude that alcohol lets you have a great time and let go of all your problems. This has a positive effect because it says the working class deserves a good time and too party and relax which is true. It is negative because it is not necessarily good to drink especially excessively or often. Another add was the one describing all the things Budweiser is and how it is Americas brand and not imported. Also, it made by hard working people who love the beer

The health behavior change that I am planning to do is to sleep for a minimum of 8 hours a night. I have done my research on how much sleep a person of my age should be getting and that is 7-9 hours a night. I know personally this is not something I am able to accomplish very often and would really like to. The health benefits will be tremendous as well as the mental benefits. Personally I have wanted to get better sleep for a very long time. Ever since I was little I always had trouble getting to sleep. I would just sit and bed a be up for the longest time. Even through high school I would only get six hours of sleep at most. All my morning classes then and now I have a hard time getting through. I want to be more alert in the mornings.

The interspecific relationship that I decided to explore was the relationship between myself and my cat. In particular the effects on what would happen when I play with her more and give her more attention. The idea for this experiment came to me during winter break . I spent a lot of time with my cat because she came home with me. We bonded during that time and would not leave my side. Then when I left to go to the UK for four days. When I got back she was very standoffish. So, for my experiment i decided to try and gain more attention from her by playing with her more and giving her more attention. I wanted to see how that would affect how she felt towards me after the fact. Also, I spent some days completely out of the house and saw how she reacted when I came home.