Writing in Biology

While collecting data, intra-personal reliability analysis was conducted as to maintain a high level of accuracy. Similar to the Time budget analysis (Figure 1 and Figure 2) a subset of behaviors was derived from the original list in order to best capture data in as few keystrokes as possible. Between a series of tests, multiple reliability tests were conducted in order to elevate the overall original score of 30 to a high of 50. This means that during the scoring process, we were able to successfully line up the correct timestamp and behavior 32 out of 63 times. When the tests were broken down in order to see the reliability of each behavior; feeding behaviors scored 41, play behaviors scored 44, grooming scored 19, communication scored 21, and locomotive behaviors scored 18.

    Once the reliability scores were assessed, we used the selected behaviors to conduct a time budget analysis (Figure 1). Compared are the proportions of time spent Feeding (53%), Playing (8%), Grooming (16%), Communicating (9%), and Locomoting (13%). Behaviors were analyzed over a 10 minute span and organized in order to gauge which set of behavior is more prevalent over the monitored time span. Such results are indicative of the foals selective behavior when in its homeostatic environment. After the original time budget analysis was conducted, it was important to us to see what the break down of the behaviors were like when the foal was in the presence of its mother, when it was with another foal, and when it was alone (Figure 2). Focusing on the feeding behaviors and communicative behaviors, we observed that feeding took up a larger proportion of time, the foal seldom fed with other foals, and chose to feed more with its mother. Conversely, we observed that the foal primarily decided to communicate with its mother as opposed to other foals or sending signals by itself.

While collecting data, intra-personal reliability analysis was conducted as to maintain a high level of accuracy. Similar to the Time budget analysis (Figure 1 and Figure 2) a subset of behaviors was derived from the original list in order to best capture data in as few keystrokes as possible. Between a series of tests, multiple reliability tests were conducted in order to elevate the overall original score of 30 to a high of 50. This means that during the scoring process, we were able to successfully line up the correct timestamp and behavior 32 out of 63 times. When the tests were broken down in order to see the reliability of each behavior; feeding behaviors scored 41, play behaviors scored 44, grooming scored 19, communication scored 21, and locomotive behaviors scored 18.

    Once the reliability scores were assessed, we used the selected behaviors to conduct a time budget analysis (Figure 1). Compared are the proportions of time spent Feeding (53%), Playing (8%), Grooming (16%), Communicating (9%), and Locomoting (13%). Behaviors were analyzed over a 10 minute span and organized in order to gauge which set of behavior is more prevalent over the monitored time span. Such results are indicative of the foals selective behavior when in its homeostatic environment. After the original time budget analysis was conducted, it was important to us to see what the break down of the behaviors were like when the foal was in the presence of its mother, when it was with another foal, and when it was alone (Figure 2). Focusing on the feeding behaviors and communicative behaviors, we observed that feeding took up a larger proportion of time, the foal seldom fed with other foals, and chose to feed more with its mother. Conversely, we observed that the foal primarily decided to communicate with its mother as opposed to other foals or sending signals by itself.

Upon review of the video information, 62 behaviors were analyzed and categorized into the tables shown above. Such behaviors include the actual feeding of the foal, drinking the mother’s milk, digging for food, and so on. In total, eleven feeding behaviors were observed and categorized (Table 1). In video files three and five, it was observed that the foals were given free range to play and interact with each other. A list of 22 behaviors was composed and arranged denoting said behaviors (Table 2). All the specified behaviors occurred during the interaction between the foal and its partner(s) and so we deemed them to be playful. Afterwards, we established the behaviors associated with the foals grooming themselves. These primarily consist of the foal scratching, nipping, and licking its coat (Table 3). This category contained the least amount of behaviors but was significant in that it displayed a very unique set of behaviors. Communicative behaviors range from mechanical and visual modalities of communication to even a few sporadic vocal cues (Table 4). The foals were effective in getting the attention of their mothers and partners via these communicative behaviors and thus sending the signal they wished to get across. Lastly, Table 5 includes the behaviors associated with miscellaneous locomotion and movement. For example, behaviors like sprinting, non-playful trotting, and indiscriminate head bobbing are included in this table. These behaviors pertain no other use than moving from one location to the other and the ways in which the foal moves upon the initiation of said behaviors. To recap, each of the above tables aims to illustrate the a portion of the overall 62 behaviors within its set category. These categories were drawn from the analysis of the two video files provided and used as an organizational tool to effectively present the collected data.

Rigor mortis is the chemical change in one’s body after death characterized by the stiffness and rigidity of the limbs. Rigor mortis is caused by the lack of ATP in the body after the organs shut down. ATP is needed for muscle contraction as it binds to myosin and allows myosin to pull the thin filaments of the muscle closer to the sarcomere. However, once the ATP is used up, the contracted muscles cannot relax because ATP is required for the myosin to release from the actin binding site and reset itself. Therefore, when the ATP runs out, the muscles stay in a contracted state causing stiffness. Rigor mortis is the third stage of death and can last up to eighteen hours. However, the rigor goes away after some time because the proteins completely denature. The proteins denature because the calcium is eventually pumped away from the troponin binding sites, allowing them to cover up the actin binding sites. Once the actin binding sites are covered up, the myosin can detach and relax the muscle. 

Once calcium floods the cell, it attaches to troponin. Troponin, a regulatory protein on the thin filament, changes shape when bound to calcium. This shape conformation causes the tropomyosin protein to shift away from the actin binding site on the thin filament strands. The binding sites of actin must be exposed for contraction to occur. ATP bound-myosin on the thick filament can then bind itself to the actin binding site and pull the thin filament towards the center of the sarcomere. Following this movement, another ATP binds to myosin, and myosin uses the ATP to release from the actin and cock itself. The myosin gets ready to bind another actin if and when it is exposed. This process creates the contraction of a skeletal muscle

At the neuromuscular junction, an axon terminal releases acetylcholine into the synapse where they then bind to acetylcholine receptors. The binding of the acetylcholine causes a graded potential or depolarization of the muscle. Once the voltage threshold is met, the voltage gated ion channels open and allow sodium to rush into the cell. This rush of sodium causes a depolarization, and an electric current flows down the plasma membrane of the cell. The electric current passes through the t-tubules of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The t-tubule surrounds the sarcoplasmic reticulum and once depolarized, it opens calcium channels on the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The free calcium floods the area around the thick and thin filaments and causes a muscle contraction.

CRISPR/Cas9 has been getting attention recently due to research that found it to be a possible new tool used in genome editing. The research surrounding CRISP/ Cas9 has the potential to change the world of controlled genome editing. New studies are observing if the genome editing can be deemed as a successful option for further research on humans.

     The CRISPR/Cas9 mechanism is comprised of two parts. The regulatory sector of the system is an RNA guide which is programmed to create a sequence that matches the desired DNA sequence. The RNA guide is then bound to Cas9, a protein that has the ability to make double stranded DNA breaks. When the RNA regulatory sector binds to the Cas9 protein, they search through the DNA to find the programmed sequence that matches the RNA sequence. When the RNA sequence binds to the DNA's complementary sequence, Cas9 can make a cut. The cut in DNA allows for the DNA to be edited. Mutations can be corrected, new genes can be inserted, or certain genes can be removed from the human genome.

After the solution was refluxed to worked up to remove the water, the final product was analyzed using infrared spectroscopy. The spectroscopy analysis provided peaks that correspond to that of an ester, which is what was expected and can confirm the esterification process in the synthesis of 1-propyl propionate. The IR spectrum showed a peak just to the right of 3000 cm^-1 at 2972.43 cm^-1. This peak corresponds to the alkyl carbon-hydrogen bond in the ester. The stretch that starts at peak 1740.83 cm^-1 is a measurement of the double bond between carbon and oxygen. These are the results that would be seen in a sample of pure ester, but the IR spectrum also gives peak values above 3000 cm^-1, which suggests impurities containing a hydroxyl oxygen and hydrogen bond. The peak is highest at 3453.69 cm^-1. This impurity could be a result of left-over water or a result of alcohol contamination from the 1-propanol.

Even after abortions became illegal in the US, women continued to have them. Practitioners did their work behind closed doors or in private homes. Women without financial means often resorted to dangerous or deadly measures.   Although Roe v. Wade made abortion nationally legal in 1973, over 1,074 restrictive laws have been passed by states in efforts to make abortion as inaccessible as possible. More than a quarter of these laws were passed between 2014 and 2015. If history repeats itself, we could see a resurgence of unsafe abortion practices in the United States.

This reading touches different informed consent laws and the intent and impact of implementing such laws. Neoliberalism also increases the state’s power over women’s bodies through increased abortion restrictions and control over medicine.

Informed consent laws vary greatly from state to state, so even though nationally abortion is legal, many boundaries such as the social pressures implicated by informed consent can arise.

As a group, we observed photos of warblers from the Setophega worksheet. To begin, a series of 12 common plumage characteristics for the warblers were identified. We choose to observe the presence of wing bars, if the bird had a short or long beak, the color of the throat, eye ring color, belly color, feet color, the presence of yellow feathers, the presence of bright colored feathers, rump coloration, the presence of a curved beak, if the bird had more than two feather colors, and if the crown was a different color than the body. We observed the photographs and the skin museum to observe each species and categorize the plumage characteristics.  Coloration differences were shown by changing the color of the cell within the table of data, the color of the cell matched the color of the plumage. The presence of wing bars, yellow feathers, bright colored feathers, more than two feather colors, and a matching crown were indicated by a 1 for yes. A 0 indicated a no. A short beak was categorized by a 0 and a long beak was categorized by a 1. After evaluating each of the 33 species of Warblers for the set of characteristics determined, four of the patterns were chosen to apply to a phylogenetic tree.