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Computers are extremely new in the grand scheme of humankind, but their invention has completely changed the world. In 2015, it was found that more than 86 percent of Americans had a computer in their home ( /////) and this number continues to grow. Access to computers has changed education, the medical field, and the way that people socialize.   

            Throughout history, education has been something that many people did not have access to. This is still true today, but computers have decreased the number of people without access to an education. Many colleges now offer online classes, and some even offer online degrees. This allows people who cannot go to physical classes to still grow their knowledge. In addition to being able to access an education, they also allow students to gain knowledge at the tips of their fingers. With a quick internet search, students are able to access a huge database of information. This information can further be used in papers, experiments, and projects. Quick access to information like this is also important to others besides students, like people in the medical field. 

             Now that there is a general understanding of the symplesiomorphies of the vertebrates, it will now be easier to identify the characteristics that are unique to each family. To start, we will look at the Myxiniformes, also known as hagfish. Hagfish are unique in that they have remanence of Hemal arches which indicate a linkage to the vertebrates. However, this trait was lost in the species so while it is not actively in hagfish, the presence of the ancestral trait is what links them to the rest of the taxon. Aside from this, Hagfish have no paired fins, a slight caudal tail, a linear brain on a cartilaginous plate (brain case), and a protruding jaw used for tunneling and burrowing into food. Hagfish also have either 5 or 8 gill slits, there is no in between. These characteristics are unique to hagfish and are therefore referred to as apomorphic characteristics.

            Next, we will conclude by look at the apomorphic characteristics of Petromysontiformes. This too is a Latin name which can be loosely translated into “stone sucking fish” or as we call them, lampreys. Lampreys are one of the more unique vertebral fishes in that they were the first to develop a lateral line system. This system is used as a sensory mechanism to detect pressure changes in the water which could indicate the presence of a predator or prey. This system is now common in fishes but was first seen in the lamprey. Other characteristics of lampreys include, three eyes (two lateral and image forming, one dorsal), one dorsal nostril, seven gill slits, and a dorsal and tail fin. Like the hagfish, lampreys don’t have any bones or paired fins. However, lampreys do have the ability to survive in both marine and freshwater systems. Fishes with such capabilities are referred to as anadromous fish. Similar to the lateral line system, lampreys were the first to adopt this style of living.

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Two contradicting stereotypes were given to the Native Americans in the United States: bloodthirsty savages who attacked the white settlers or helpless victims who had their land and resources striped away from them. The two stereotypes are opposites, yet they possess the same stereotypical image. Native Americans are thought be be wearing feathers, braids, beads and holding spears. Modern Indians do not wear that apparel in this era, therefore society has a preconceived idea that they are no longer present in America. This idea is not true due to the large amount of Native American populations and land that still exists. Native Americans blend in with contemporary society.

Native Americans are not aknowledged by most of the nation due to the fact that their history and culture do not fit into the “Master Narrative”. The “Master Narrative” is the idea that all Americans have one single experience. This experience is a success story of our nation’s growth, based on unity, liberty and equality (Calloway 2-3). Native American history did not follow the typical American experience of accomplishment and therefore was ignored by many historians and Americans to this day. Native American history included hardship, resistance, and tragedy. Most Native American history is not accurate because it has been documented by non-Native Americans. The biased opinions skewed the truth behind the Native Americans beliefs, intentions, and actions in the past. This created a misconception across the nation and has shaped many of the stereotypes seen to this day.

        To identify differences across families, it is important to have a general idea of the ancestral characteristics that each family share. For example, Myxiniformes, Petromysontiformes, and the rest of the vertebrates all have a braincase, neural crest cells, a tripartite brain and cranial nerves. They also each have an inner ear with at least one semicircular duct, an optic tectum, a muscularized gut tube, and respiratory gills with hemoglobin. Other shared characteristics include a pituitary gland that is divided into an adenohypophysis and a neurohypophysis portion as well as the use of water for respiration and feeding behaviors. These shared ancestral characteristics that are carried out throughout a taxon are referred to as symplesiomorphies.

            When looking back to the phylogenetic tree from which all species stem from, one of the groups that is often over looked is the Cyclostomata. This group is one of the earliest members of the vertebrates who’s name literally translates to “circle mouth” thus referring to their circular jaws. This group breaks down further into two families, Myxiniformes (hagfish) and Petromysontiformes (lampreys). This passage will serve to discuss the similarities and differences between Myxiniformes, Petromysontiformes, and the rest of the vertebrates.

            To start, it is important to have a general idea of the ancestral characteristics that each family share. For example, all three of the above families have a braincase, neural crest cells, a tripartite brain and cranial nerves. They also have an inner ear with at least one semicircular duct, and optic tectum, a muscularized gut tube, and respiratory gills with hemoglobin. These shared ancestral characteristics are referred to as symplesiomorphies and can be seen in every vertebrate living today.

I would be ecstatic if I had the opportunity to meet with you in order to talk about potentially joining one of your research labs. I am particularly interested in your research about intrinsically disordered proteins and furthermore, its effects on the humans. Yet, I would be more than willing to even shadow another available lab in order to gain experience and learn as much as I can about abnormal protein behavior, fibril growth, or coupling mechanisms of protein channels.

Your advanced research on intrinsically disordered proteins is what captivated me. The contradiction between whether disordered proteins create diversity or disrupt normal protein function and the ambiguity on how they physically interact within the cell intrigues me. I would genuinely love to learn more about this topic and IDPs outcome on the human genome. I believe I would contribute beneficial time to the research and hope learn about not only the topic itself, but new techniques and methodologies I may be introduced to along the way.

One of the most important biological processes for all life on Earth is cellular respiration. This process takes place in an organelle known as the mitochondria, colloquially referred to as the "powerhouse of the cell." Three stages encompass cellular respiration: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The final stage is aerobic and generates the most ATP for the energy put in. Glycolysis is an anaerobic process that uses two ATP molecules and produces 4, resulting in a net gain of two ATP molecules. By breaking down glucose, the cell is able to tap into a bit of the energy stores located in the molecule. Glycolysis takes place outside the mitochondria in the cell's cytoplasm.

A molecule known as Acetyl CoA helps take the pyruvate, the ending molecule of glycolysis, into the matrix of the mitochondria. Here, the Krebs cycle occurs and many electrons are stripped from molecules and their intermediates to eventually be utilized in generating ATP. These electrons are picked up by electron carriers, such as NAD+ and FADH, which transport these electrons to the electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation. At the electron transport chain, electrons are pulled through a series of proteins by electronegative oxygen. Along the way, proton pumps establish a gradient in the intermembrane space of the mitochondria. The electrons eventually join with oxygen and are released as water, and the protons in the intermembrane space flow down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase. When ATP synthase spins, it generates ATP.

Does the author recommend getting rid of amenities like telephone, staircases and visual signage , and making sure that everyone has access to the same resources? This way, the distinction between the "public world of ordinary citizens" and the "hidden world of disabled people" will lower a lot. But, it might be difficult to get people to comply with these changes, as they may see this as the reverse end of the norm: now instead of catering to abled people, catering to disabled people. 

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 makes it illegal for discrimination against disabled people for purposes of service or employment. The ADA defines protected disabilities as those that substantially restricts/limits one or more of the major life activities of an individual. How does one define "major life activities"? According to the US Equal Opportunity and Employment Commission, these activities include hearing, seeing, speaking, walking, breathing, caring for oneself, learning or working. But one type of activity might be more substantial/major to one person than another type. How does the ADA account for these subjective preferences in their rules? It is also stated that an employer does not have to provide reasonable accommodations if it imposes an "undue hardship" (significant difficulty or expense relative to employer's size, financial resources, and nature of operation). Does this not hinge upon civil rights of disabled persons seeking employment? Though if we consider it the other way, not allowing businesses to make reasonable choices for their profit might be infringing on their own corporate rights.