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Topocloning is a faster and more efficient version of the traditional cloning method. Cloning is the process by which a DNA sequence of interest is integrated into a vector plasmid. This is done traditionally by cutting the plasmid with a restriction enzyme and then ligating either end of the sequence to the open ends of the plasmid. The ligation step is performed by an enzyme called ligase. The use of two different enzymes in two different steps makes the traditional cloning method ineffective. Many errors occur using this method. The advent of topocloning has circumvented the use of two enzymes and reduced errors, by the use of a single enzyme called topoisomerase 1. The vector comes open with two toposiomerase 1 enzymes on either end of the open vector. Once the sequence of interest comes into the gap, the topoisomerase 1 enzymes catalyze the ligation step, closing up the vector and integrating the appropriate sequence into the vector.

Biodiversity is a term used to describe all species in an environment that coexist (Alteiri, 1999). Biodiversity creates a stable ecosystem by offering protection and regulation to crops making the diversification essential for prosperity (Elings, 2017). Specifically, in agricultural systems, the organisms contribute to the reuse of nutrients and enhance soil fertility (Alteiri, 1999).

Topocloning is a faster and more efficient version of  traditional cloning. Cloning is the process by which a DNA sequence of interest is integrated into a vector plasmid. This is done traditionally by cutting the plasmid with a restriction enzyme and then ligating either end of the sequence to the open ends of the plasmid. The ligation step is typically performed by an enzyme called ligase. The use of two different enzymes in two different steps makes the traditional cloning method ineffective. Many errors occur using this method. The advent of topocloning has circumvented the use of two enzymes, by the use of a single enzyme called topoisomerase 1. The vector comes open with two toposiomerase 1 enzymes on either end of the open vector. Once the sequence of interest comes into the gap, the topoisomerase 1 enzymes catalyze the ligation step, closing up the vector and integrating the appropriate sequence into the vector.

    Mating calls of male Dog Day Cicadas are used to attract female partners. Research has shown that Dog Day Cicadas, one of the most common species of cicadas found in the United States, use a specific mating call in order to attract females in hopes of performing reproduction. The sound that is created by the panels beneath their wings, known as tymbals. The panels vibrate rapidly, and is then intensified by the cicada’s mostly hollow abdomen. The main mating call is a high-pitched drone that lasts about 15 seconds. It starts softly and gradually grows louder in a crescendo, and then tapers off by the end. The sound is eerily similar to the sound of an electric saw. Yet female and male cicadas can also create sounds using their wings, but this sound is different and distinct. We would like to determine whether or not this signal is also a part of the mating call, or is instead used in a different manner. Cicadas are not known for communicating anything other than their desire to mate, and our team would like to determine what else are Dog Day Cicadas singing about. We would be able to gather data from the Texas A&M Forest Services, the studies done by the University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, and other research journals done by the University of California, Irvine.

What the author means by hologenomic approach is that they are not only taking into acount the genome of the vampire bites but they are also looking into the microbiome to compare it to other types of bats. The word sanguivory means that the bats feed on blood which comes with some challenges. The challenges that they face consist of a lack of nutrition. There is not a lot of nutritious value in having a diet of blood. Also a diet of just blood means that the bats are then exposed to blood bourne viruses that can make them fall ill. However the microbiome of vampire bats is different then that of an insectivorous bat, carnivorous bat, or frugivourous bat. The vampire bat has a stomach filled with certain enzymes that allow it to break down its blood and get nutrients which then contributes to the fitness of the bat itself.

Ethical considerations primarily focus on the effects on future generations. Relating to gene editing concerning athletes, a current controversy regards whether we should be allowed to use these methods to enhance our own abilities. The use of genome editing in somatic cells raises some concerns due to the array of unpredictable outcomes that accompany gene editing (Krishan et al. 2015). Many are in favor of genome editing when it concerns the elimination of certain diseases. Yet, many are against the idea of altering the DNA of embryos, citing it as crossing an ethical line. This is due to the possibility of newly created diseases developing due to DNA insertion from CRISPR-Cas9 in locations other than the target site (Cyranoski 2015).

    Is there such thing as a wrong way to live? Where do we draw the line? For example, say someone poor marries someone who happens to be rich, but the two eventually fall apart and they divorce, and the person who was initially poor, keeps a decent amount of the money and they’re happy. There’s nothing wrong with this picture right? What about someone who marries someone just for their money, and not for the romantic aspect of the relationship?  Does that seem wrong? But what if it’s a mutual agreement and they marry because it’s a sort of sugar daddy situation? Is that still wrong? Then what about if the marriage only stays together because the kids are a factor, and the two hate each other. Is it still right, or is it wrong? There are so many variables that come into play with this one example (of marriage) alone. It gets to a point where it’s impossible to look at every single scenario and be definitive about it, so why not just let people do as they please as long as it’s consensual? Personally, I don’t understand how people can look at other people and make such judgements and condoning them, when they’re happy and they’re just trying to live their life. The only way I can see it being reasonable, is if their way of life poses a threat towards society, because that becomes a larger problem that doesn’t involve just the both of the people in question.

    The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a wild cat found scattered around in small parts of Africa and Iran. It is famous for being the fastest land animal on the planet, able to reach speeds up to 75 miles per hour. There are five subspecies; four that are African and one that is Asian. According to a research paper titled The global decline of cheetah and what it means for conservation by Sarah M. Durant and her team, the cheetah’s historic range was most of Africa (excluding parts of central Africa, Egypt, and Madagascar) and the Middle East into India. Today, cheetahs have lost 98% of their range in Asia, and the Asian Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) is critically endangered with an estimated 50 individuals. In Africa, the remaining four subspecies live only on 13% of the land they once inhabited, causing the Northwest African Cheetah subspecies (Acinonyx jubatus hecki) to also become critically endangered. As of 2014, the known cheetah population is about 6700 individuals over 29 subpopulations (Durant).

Fertilizer has been shown to reduce the production of volatile organic compounds. Pests tend to prefer plants with fewer volatile organic compounds, and plants treated with more than enough fertilizer are preferable to pests (Islam et al. 2017). Heavily fertilized soil has been associated with less chemical defense compounds in plant leaves (Prudic et al. 2005). Less volatile organic compounds and fewer chemical defenses encourage herbivore consumption. A well fertilized plant treated with jasmonic acid should be more desirable to an herbivore than a poorly fertilized plant treated the same. 

However, artificially inducing plant defenses depletes energy and resources for other functions. It has been shown to consequently affect growth, reproductive processes, fruit and leaves (Redman et al. 2001; Koussevitzky et al. 2004). Treating plants with jasmonic acid has been shown to result in larger but fewer fruits and can alter amount of seeds produced and germination success (Redman et al. 2001). The treatment has been shown to increase the amount of polyphenol oxidase in chloroplasts (Koussevitzky et al. 2004). Excess polyphenol oxidase causes fruits and leaves to brown faster and the fruits to consist of more pigments, a sign of increased rate of cell death (Araji et al. 2014). Plants treated with jasmonic acid should be smaller than those not and show signs of poor health.