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Chondrichtyes are a class of cartilaginous fish and contains two subclasses; the Holocephali and the Elasmobronchii. There are about 40 extant species of Holocephali, one example being the ratfish. The main defining feature of the Holocephali is that they have a holostylic jaw suspension. This means that the upper jaw is fused with the braincase. Holocephali are also oviparous and will lay 1-2 eggs at a time. Males will have claspers as well as a frontal tenaculum.

Elasmobrochii includes fish such as sharks, rays and skates. The defining characteristics of Elasmobrochii are their plated gills. These may be on the side of their heads as with sharks, or located ventrally in the rays and skates. This distinction seperates rays and skates into a subgroup called Batoids. Elasmobrachi have placoid scales, that are similar to teeth like structures. In fact, they have a pulp cavity, an enamel like substance that coats them and are even made of dentin, as teeth are. Furthermore, rather than teeth plates, these have polyphydont dentitions.

A neuron is a specialized cells that transmits nerve signals. The nervous system has two parts, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is what acts as the integrating signal. The peripheral nervous system then is further broken down into two parts, the sensory division which sends signals to the CNS through afferent neurons. The other part is the efferent nervous system which takes the signals from the CNS to the target cells via efferent signals. Efferent signals are what leave. Afferent is responsible for the input of signals to the CNS from somatic, special, and visceral signals. Efferent is responsable for the output from the CNS. Efferent signals then go to either somatic or autonomic controls, autonomic are the things in which you cannot control. 

The neuron itself is made up of a couple different parts. The dendrites are what recieve the signals, they either recieve nuerontransmitters or hormones. The dendrites extend from the cell body, which is where everything is made. The nucleus is found in the cell body. The signals are integrated in the axon hillock, which is near the edge of the cell body and this is where the action potential is generated. The action potentials are propagated in the axon and the neurontransmitters are released in the presynaptic terminal. This is the basic structure of a neuron. 

Amino acids are the monomers of proteins and polypeptides. Each amino acid contains an amino group, carboxl group, and an R group. The structure of the R group is important in dictating the function of the protein when strung together as polypeptides. For this reason, the way the protiens are assembled is essential to its function. Through dehydration synthesis, the amino acids bind at the amino group of one acid and the carboxyl group of the next acid. This chain of amino acids is called the primary structure. However, the polypeptide string can be rearranged in a multitude of ways depending on the R groups. The protein is in its seconday structure when the amino acid chains come together to form alpha helixes and beta sheets. These formations happen through hydrogen bonding. Within the same polypeptide chain, the sheets and sprials fold on one another and bind to one another through interctions of the R group (intramolecular bonds); this is called the tertiary structure. Lastly, when multiple polypeptide formations bind to each other, they create their quaternary structure. To reiterate, each specific amino acid structure is incredibly important in carrying out the proteins function. When these proteins are under stressful environments, such as high temperatures or pH levels, they can denature in form, therefore, harming the proteins ability to carry out its specific function. When pH distrupts the protein structure, it is harming the H-bonds that make up the secondary and tertiary structure. 

Different types of white blood cells on eight other blood smears were analyzed and identified. We looked at these under the microscope starting with 4X magnification and moving to 10X & 40X. Our goal here was to identify as many different white blood cells as possible in each smear. We also needed to correctly create and read a hematocrit/PCV test. To make one to be observed first put hematocrit capillaries from the blood sample you want into an eppendorf tube. W tried to fill it at least half way. We did Blood C and B while our partners did Blood A. When it was filled, we put an index finger over the top of the tube and plugged the bottom with putty to seal it. We then put both tubes into the centrifuge for five minutes at 14,000 rpm. After five minutes was up, we measured the amount of red blood cells, buffy coat, and total amount of material inside of the tube in centimeters. By measuring this we calculated the hematocrit/ PVC count for the blood type. We calculated it by taking the amount of red blood cells in centimeters and dividing it by the total amount of material in the tube. This allowed us to diagnose the animals who provided the blood with healthy or unhealthy.   

Based on the results collected by our group the next step in our experiment would be to identify the type of plant that was predominantly found on the hilly area and examining other hilly areas to find if the same type of plant dominates those places, as well to add to the concept that the plants found on the hilly area are more fit for survival on a hill than other plants. In this case, the hypothesis would be “Hilly areas will be dominated by species more fit for survival on a slope compared to flat areas that provide nutrients for more diversity.” By doing this, we would be able to further support our hypothesis of hilly areas being lower in diversity, and determine if the new hypothesis is correct. However, for this experiment, different climate factors would have to be taken into consideration since certain plants cannot grow in certain temperatures. To ensure that the results would be as precise as possible, doing the data collection at the same time of the year (springtime) as the data already collected in this experiment would be crucial. Though the results would still vary because of amounts of sunlight. precipitation, etc., there would be a greater chance that the data would be closer to the data that was found in the hilly area.

I thought that this figure was detailed yet understandable. The way that all of the information was presented was done in a way that it was clear, and the results are easily understandable. In part A of the figure, they show the expression of the transgene that allows for synaptic activation via a basal light source. Then in part B they display how the light was mounted to the model organism at the center of the experiment. In part C, each dot on the graph shows one subject in the experiment, and an effect is clearly demonstrated before and after the light in the form of a laser is activated; each line and dot represents one mouse. Finally, part D of the figure shows the EEG reading resulting from the aforementioned light stimulation in the form of a laser directed to a specific region of the rodents brain. Overall, I found that this figure was digestible and well constructed.

 

One of the most important parts of the METHODS project is trying to create a figure that can be replicated. In order to make sure my figure can be easily replicated by another student I plan to take very clear notes on how my picture was taken. Some of the categories for these notes will be, location, weather, and phone camera settings. In addition, I will also include a map of where the spider web was found, in the chance that it is still there so the student is able to replicate the figure as best as they can.

It is important to note the distinction between equilibrium and homeostasis. Equilibrium refers to a specific system being balanced, while homeostasis refers to the organism as a whole being stable despite internal and external factors. In homeostasis, the factors being stabilized are vital to the organism's survival, and without this balance the organism will die. For example, when homeostasis is disrupted in an organisms body, the imbalance will likely result in disease. In order to keep homeostasis in an organism, the body uses many negative feedback loops to help a reaction go back to the "normal" balance for the body. This means that a function must decrease in order to go back to its balance and reduce its change. This occurs, for example, when the body gets a fever. The fever, or stimulus, occurs when the body temperature goes above normal. When the body temperature raises, it causes the sweat glands to start working harder in order to bring down the body's temperature. On the other hand, there are positive feedback loops that work differently. Positive feedback loops work by amplifying a change in order to get a body back to homeostasis. For example, when a female is in labor, contractions get more intensified in order to get the baby out; this induces an increase in a body function in order to get back to normal. 

To better understand fish life life cycles, their migratory patterns during spawning season must be looked at. Some fish make journeys back to where they were born, or can only give birth in certain types of waters. The way fish move to make this journey helps scientists classify them into different groups. These groups do not hold any taxonomic sbustance and does not mean the fish are more or less related. Fish that live part of their lives in freshwater and part of their lives in salt water are called diadromous fish. This classification alerts whoever is studying the fish to their unique spawning behaviors and can be further broken down to a more psecific point. Anadromous fish are born in fresh water and then spend most of their lives in salt water before returning to freshwater to spawn. The salmon and its journey upstream to spawn is one of the most common examples, although stripped bass and sturgeon are other examples. Catadromous fish are the opposite. These fish are live in fresh water but journey to the sea to spawn. A common example of this type of fish are eels. This information is important to understanding the fish and in a practical sense, because it is necessary to know how certain buildings and structures will be affecting the aquatic life. If diadromous fish live in a river or off the coast, then they will need to be able to maintain access to the other in order to complete their life cycle and maintain a healthy population.

Amino acids are the primary building blocks of all proteins. They polymerize with one another via a dehydration reaction and form a polypeptide chain, known as the primary structure of a protein. Each amino acid is comprised of a central alpha carbon with a hydrogen, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable R-group that makes them unique. The amino end is referred to as the N-terminus, and the carboxyl end Is referred to as the C-terminus. A total of twenty common amino acids exist within our bodies and they are sorted into different groups based on their chemical properties. For example, polar amino acids are considered to be hydrophilic (water loving) because their R-groups will interact with other polar molecules, including water. These aforementioned properties of amino acids dictate how the primary structure will fold in an aqueous environment. Proteins cannot exist without amino acids, as they are fundamental components of life itself.