Drafts

When a fat molecule is broken down, it is turned into acyl-CoA. The acyl-CoA is transported into the mitochondria and goes through beta-oxidation. The result of this process is acetyl-CoA, which can enter into the citric acid cycle (CAC). The acetyl-CoA is reduced and reduced electron carriers, ATP, and carbon dioxide are produed. The reduced electron carriers are used in oxidative phosporylation. They are passed down protiens builit into the inner mitochondrial membrane. This process creates a proton gradient in the inner membrane space. The protons flow through a protein, ATPsynthase, which produces ATP. 

Insecure adolescents may lack serotonin and as a result have trouble sleeping, have disturbed eating habits, and unpleasant moods. To help with these consequences, doctors may prescribe drugs that contain selective reuptake inhibitors to allow serotonin to linger longer in the synaptic cleft. This will prevent serotonin from being reabsorbed by the previous neuron and not being able to be transmitted to the next neuron. As a result, students could slowly become in a slightly better mood and state. Selective reuptake inhibitors are a possible solution for adolescents that have a hard time dealing with their imperfections and low self-esteem. The pituitary gland, also found in the brain, is responsible for the release of hormones and consequently, important during puberty.

In this lab benzoin was reduced with sodium borohydride, a reducing agent, to produce an alcohol. The starting materials were reacted using conditions specific to the reaction being performed and the target product was obtained in 35.19% yield. When an aldehyde or ketone is reacted with NaBH4, followed by an acidic-water workup, an alcohol is the product. The product was analyzed using Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and by obtaining melting points. The spots on plate 1 indicate that the recrystallized product (spot B) only contained one component. The component’s rf value was found to be 0.43 that when compared to the spots found on B which have rf values of 0.87 and 0.91, is more polar. An alcohol is more polar than an alcohol or ketone, which indicated that the product was correctly obtained.

Cyclohexene was made through the dehydration synthesis of cyclohexanol, resulting in a percent yield of 34.88%. The identity of cyclohexene was confirmed using IR spectrometry. The peak at 2926.14 [1/cm] is the Csp3-H stretch. The peak at 3022.58 [1/cm] is the Csp2-H stretch. Gas chromatography was used to show the purity of the compound. There was only one line at 0.738, during the run. If there were more lines being produced that would mean there were more compounds in the solution. Since there was only one line, there was only one compound. When reacting bromine with cyclohexanes the solution turned orange after the first drop. Then after a few more drops the solution turned reddish-brownish. When reacting bromine with cyclohexene there was no change after many drops, the solution remained clear. When reacting potassium permanganate with cyclohexane there were two layers with cyclohexane on top.

In the unknown lab, we started by gram staining our organism. This is a way of testing for the presence of a thick polysaccharide wall. Gram positive organisms have this thick wall, while gram negative organisms do not. To gram stain, first 4-5 drops of crystal violet are added onto the organism. Then after 60 seconds it is washed off with sterile water and 4-5 drops of iodine is added for 60 seconds. Then hydrogen peroxide is added for 10 seconds. Then safran is added for 60 seconds. Once that is done, the organism is observed under a microscope. The gram positive organisms appear purple and the gram negative organisms appear pink. Gram negative organisms consist of non-fermenters and enteric bacteria. Gram positive organisms consist of staphococci and strepococci. Oxidase tests are done on gram negative bacteria to distunguish between non-fermenters and enteric bacteria. Positive tests appear for non-fermenters. Catalase tests are done on gram positive tests to distinguisg between staphococci and strepococci. positive tests appear for staphococci. 

Another study done on plants gives a different dimension to GDSL esterase activity . In this study, a forward genetic screen reveals a brittle leaf sheath 1 (bs1) mutant that is characterized by brittle leaf sheaths. Further genomic investigation, reveals that the BS1 gene codes for a GDSL esterase that removes acetyl moieties from xylan backbones. Because xylan is a major component of secondary cell walls, secondary cell wall architecture is compromised in bs1 mutants. This suggests that this GDSL esterase allows proper secondary wall patterning to occur. BS1 is ubiquitously expressed in plants but more in vascular tissues. Subcellular examination revealed localization in the Golgi apparatus. This is interesting because prior to this discovery, no GDSL esterase/lipase had been discovered to have polysaccharide esterase activity.

The P/O ratio is determined experimentally and is a number that relates the amount of ATP generated per electron carrier. This number can vary depending on the physiological conditions. P stands for the moles of phosphoryl groups consumed to form ATP, and the O stands for moles of oxygen consumed to be reduced to water. The P/O ratio of one NADH is 2.5 ATP, and the P/O ratio of one FADH2 is 1.5 ATP. FADH2 has a lower P/O ratio because FAD has a higher affinity for electrons and donates them through the electron transport chain at complex II and contributes fewer protons to the gradient. Per glucose, 32 ATP are produced. 4 ATP are produced directly while 25 ATP are produced through NADH and 3 ATP are produced through FADH2. The total number of ATP produced can vary from 28-36 depending on the P/O ratios of NADH and FADH2 dependent on physiological conditions.

Proteins are central to all living processes. Many proteins are enzymes, the biological catalysts that drive the chemical reactions of the cell; others are structural components, providing scaffolding and support for membranes, filaments, bone, and hair. Some proteins help transport substances; others have a regulatory, communication, or defense function. All proteins are polymers composed of amino acids linked end to end. Twenty common amino acids are found in proteins. All of the common amino acids are similar in structure: each consists of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, and an R (radical) group that differs for each amino acid.

The objective of this experiment is to determine whether the complex that was created in Experiment 1 was actually K3[Fe(C2O4)3]·3H2O. More specifically, to determine the molar ratio of C2O42-/Fe3+ that then can be used to find the number of moles of K+. The analysis that was performed is mostly consistent with the complex K3[Fe(C2O4)3]·3H2O. The average mole ratio of C2O42- : Fe3+ that was created was 2.82 moles where the ideal mole ratio was 3 moles. When comparing the actual to theoretical yield, the percent yield is 94% which shows that the analysis was executed quite well with little error. One source of error could have been inaccurate readings of measurements during titrations resulting in rounding errors and throwing off calculations.