Drafts

Researches had found that there are neurons that mirror emotions and pain experienced by others in the anterior cingulate cortex. The cingulate cortex contains mirror neurons which allows us to feel pain while seeing someone else in pain. Researchers tested this by making rats watch other rats being put under an unpleasant stimulus. When the cingulate cortex was looked at, researchers found that the observing rates had activated the same neurons as the rats who are receiving the unpleasant stimulus. Rats tend to freeze when they are in fear and a way to avoid being detected by predators. When researchers injected a drug that inhibited the activity of the cingulate cortex, it was found that the rats no long froze when they saw other rats receiving an unpleasant stimulus.

To get a basic idea of the Bradi3g27407.2 gene expression pattern, we used the e-FP browser. This web-based tool gave us a graphical summary of our gene expression data. We analyzed the pictogram, chart and table outputs and noted the tissues and organs where our gene is expressed. We explored more about our gene expression pattern using the PlaNet gene expression clustering program. In addition, we retrieved gene expression data from Phytozome for different Brachypodium distachyon plant growth conditions. We made figures for select conditions.

In an optometrist's exam room, one might find several pieces of equipment, all used to observe different parts of the eye. Commonly found in the examination room, is the phoropter, which is used to measure refractive error of the eye and helps to determine a patient's glasses and contacts perscription. Another common piece of equipment is a slit lamp, which is a microscope that allows light to enter the eye and the optometrist to view internal structures of the eye including the iris, lens and cornea. The tonometer is another tool that allows the optometrist to measure the pressure of the eye, used to detect glaucoma. It provides a more accurate measure of eye pressure, and is an alternative to the air-puff tonometer.

In the respirartory system, the air travels into the oral and nasal cavities. In the nasal cavity there are conchea and meatus. Continuing from the nasal cavity to the larynx and trachea, there is the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngealpharynx. The larynx is protected by thyroid cartiage and the trachea is protected by cricoid cartilage. From there the air enters the primary bronchi. The primary bronchi split off into secondary brochi, and the secondary bronchi split off into tertiary brochi. The tertiary bronchi break off into brochioles, where there are aveoli sacs. Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange into and out of the blood occur here. 

I just read about NASA’s twin study and it really is incredible. I never really thought about the effect that space or zero gravity would have on someone. The twin that went into space didn’t suffer too much on upon entering space. In fact he responded relatively well to being in space. In fact the shortening of his chromosomal telomeres was reduced when in space. This means that his aging process was theoretically slowed. That being said when he returned to Earth his chromosomal telomeres shortened almost immediately and his body had an autoimmune response. His body thought that something was attacking him when in actuality he was not sick at all. He was just adjusting to the full force of gravity. His legs started to swell, he developed rashes, he was in a lot of pain. It took more than eight months for him to return to normal. It did take a toll on his body. The purpose of the study was to see how zero gravity affects the body long term. NASA wanted to know this because they want to know how plausible space travel really is.   

The authors first cloned melanopsin cDNA in rat cells to show that the protein sequence is nearly identical to that of mice. Then they generated specific antibodies targeting melanopsin to show the subset of cells that contained the protein. Tau-lacZ targeting shows the projections of melanopsin positive cells to the SCN and other regions of the brain. Lastly, they used a combination of immunofluorescence and Lucifer Yellow to show that intrinsically photosensitive RGC’s were melanopsin positive. Figure 3 shows that the authors targeted the tau-lacZ gene locus RGC’s and used immunofluorescence in mice. The structure of melanopsin positive cells was similar to that in rats. X-gal labeling not only showed retinal labeling of axons, cell bodies and dendrites, but it also showed B-galactosidase activity in parts of the brain such as the SCN, the olivary pretectal nucleus, the dorsal lateral geniculate, and other parts of the brain. This finding suggested that melanopsin positive cells are involved with processing information that is relayed to the brain.

The experiment showed that melanopsin is the photopigment present on specific RGC’s that is likely to be involved in photoentrainment. Figures 1 and 2 show melanopsin positive RGC’s using immunofluorescence in rats. Melanopsin positive cells were only about 1% of the total number of RGC’s, and only a few of the melanopsin positive cells are found in the inner nuclear layer while the rest are in the ganglion cell layer. Confocal, stained images as well as digital images of melanopsin positive RGC’s were generated. The data from figures 1 and 2 showed the abundance of melanopsin on the dendrites, axons, and cell bodies in addition to the shape and structure of RGC’s. 

The article, “Effects of instantaneous and growth CO2 levels and abscisic acid on stomatal and mesophyll conductance” by Yusuke Mizokami, Ko Noguchi, Mikiko Kojima, Hitoshi Sakakibara, and Ichiro Terashima (2017) was a research specific to analyze the trend of the mesophyll conductance changing with different CO2 levels and abscisic acid, abbreviated as ABA. The research was based on the results obtained in 2015 by Mizokami et al. that dealt with mesophyll conductance in drought environments. To understand further about the mesophyll conductance and the stomatal conductance in plants, the new case study was developed. To obtain a more accurate data than from the previous experiment, they included additional factors to consider; such as the relationship between stomatal conductance and the intercellular CO2 concentration (Mizokami et al., 2017). In the past, Mizokami et al. have concluded two points. First, if ABA level increases in a leaf, both mesophyll and stomatal conductance decreases. Secondly, ABA is not responsible for decreasing both conductance because the ABA-deficient plants also decreased both conductance in response to high CO2 levels (Mizokami et al., 2017). With these two points in mind, the new study was carried out to understand the function of mesophyll conductance (Mizokami et al., 2017)

Most plants  are composed of two very distint parts; xylem and phloem. These plants are known as being vasuclar, the simple small plants such as mosses and algae, do not have these parts and are known as non-vascular plants. Xylem tissue is mostly used for transporting water from the roots to the leaves. Phloem is used for transporting compounds produced in the leaves to the roots. This movement from leaves to the roots in the phloem is bidirectional, but in the xylem it is not. However, the xylem is made up of dead cells which are elongated and hollow. In contrast, the phloem is made up of cells such as sieve tubes and companion cells. Both of these parts of vascular plants are essential in transporting nutrients and keeping the plant hydrated. Photosynthesis in leaves requires a lot of water from the xylem and produces lots of sugar for the phloem. Although these parts are quite distinct they work together to allow the plant to flourish.