Drafts

Skull morphology differs between mammal and reptile skulls. Mammal skulls are synapsid: they have a single, large opening called a temporal fenestra behind each eye that allows for more attachment of jaw muscles. This muscle attachment gives mammals a larger range of motion in their jaws, while also allowing them to have stronger bites. Reptiles such as alligators are diapsid which means they have not one, but two temporal fenestrae on each side of their heads, while other reptiles—including turtles— do not have any of these openings, and are thus referred to as anapsid. Another difference between mammal and reptile skulls is the mammalian middle ear is made up of three bones, the malleus, the incus, and the stapes, whereas the reptilian middle ear is made up of only the stapes. The malleus and incus however are the result of the migration of the articulate and quadrate bones found in the reptilian mandible and skull respectively.

Birds are very interesting vertebrates, they have feathers and wings that allow them to fly. They are bipedal vertebrates meaning they have 2 legs just like us humans. Some of them eat insects and others eat seeds. Birds can come in different size, shape, colors, and beak sizes. They belong in a class of vertebrates known as Aves which includes all birds. They do have claws but instead, they have toes or digits (3 digits), some birds even have toes in their wings which I think is pretty amazing. Toes from their wings help them climb up trees and they can also use them to hold their preys. 

I am holding a round clear plastic cup with a medium size worm inside that has a yellowish color and It's not pleasant to look at. There is something else inside the cup that I am not sure what it is, I would like to know if they eat whatever is inside the cup. The worm has a dark head and there are lines all over its body. It does not have feet or tail but it has two brown eyes at the back of its body. There is also a circle around the brown eyes with things sticking out of it. When the worm moves, there is a long brownish line connected from the head to the back that looks like its spine.

https://neurosciencenews.com/memory-flow-neurons-10671/

This study aims to shed light on how the brain remembers certain important locations that contribute to remembering a route of travel.  The study design was a behavioral intervention. The researchers used a two-photon microscope to observe vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-expressing (VIP)-cell activity as mice ran on treadmills while being presented with various sights and sounds.  The researchers focussed on area CA1 of the hippocampus, the area that has previously been shown to be responsible for animal location. The hippocampus at large is responsible for long term memory. It is understood that as an animal learns its route, various excitatory and inhibitory neurons are fired.  What I am left wondering is how the information is stored latently, to be used at a later time.

Covalent bonds occur when atoms share electrons; however, becasue different atoms have different electronegativites, there is often an uneven distribution of electrons between the two that are covalently bonded. This results in polarity, where one atom is slightly positive, while the other atom is slightly negative. This can lead to interactions with other molecules that result in non-covalent bonds. Non-covalent bonds are electrostatic. This does not mean that they are only between fully charged molecules. Non-covalent bonds occur when two molecules have any sort of charge: partial or full or temporary or permanent. They can be intermolecular or intramolecular, meaning two parts of one molecule interact with each other. Noncovalent bonds are classified based on their magnitude and duration. Ionic bonds occur between opposite permanent, full charges. Meanwhile, van der Waals interactions occue between opposite temporary, partial charges. Dipole interactions describe any non-covalent bond in between. Dipole interactions can be dipole-dipole, ion-dipole, etc. A very important dipole-dipole interaction is the hydrogen bond. A hydrogen bond occurs when it is bound to a highly electronegative atom, usually nitrogen or oxygen. This causes the hydrogen atom to hold a permanent, partially positive charge. When it interacts with an atom with a permanent, partially negative charge, it forms a hydrogen bond. 

FISH, flourescent insitu hybridization is a molecular technique used to visaulize expression patterns of genes in a model organism. Knowing where a gene is expressed can give clues as to what role the gene plays in the organism. In fluorescent in situ hybridization, a fluroescent RNA probe is made and introduced into the organism, where it binds the appropriate gene sequence. As you can guess, the sequence of the RNA probe has to be complementary to that of the desired DNA sequence. Probe generation involves DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify the desired sequence, and then in-vitro transcription to turn DNA to RNA. The probe then has to be labeled. The actual in-situ hybridization process varies depending on the model organism used. In zebrafish, the whole process last about 4 days. The image of the expression pattern can be obtained by using confocal microscopy.

          The protein presenilin 1 is one subunit of a complex known as gamma-secretase. Presenilin 1 carries out the major function of the complex, which is to perform proteolysis on other proteins. The γ-secretase complex is best known for its role in processing amyloid precursor protein (APP), which is made in the brain and other tissues. Gamma-secretase cuts APP into smaller peptides, including soluble amyloid precursor protein (sAPP) and several versions of amyloid-beta peptide. Evidence suggests that sAPP has growth-promoting properties and may play a role in the formation of nerve cells in the brain both before and after birth. Alzheimer's disease patients with an inherited form of the disease have been found to carry mutations in the presenilin proteins or in the APP.

Acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) is a disease that nearly resembles polio in which the disease includes cold like symptoms followed by loss of muscle control and paralysis of arms or legs. Approximately sixty-two cases have been reported around the States in about twenty-two states. Scientists have slowly, but surely narrowed down suspects in which this disease could be caused by. The enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) was narrowed down to be a possible suspect. Although the evidence doesn’t completely make this assumption conclusive EV-D68 is suspected by many scientists. This enterovirus spreads through saliva and mucus and causes similar cold like symptoms and sudden loss of muscle control. Kenneth Tyler of the University of Colorado (CU) School of Medicine in Aurora reported that several strains of EV-D68 could cause paralysis in mice. EV-D68 seemed to attack nerve cells directly causing this loss of control. If the enterovirus is indeed causing the paralysis, scientists are still unsure exactly of why it is only doing so in few cases. Although there is no vaccine against EV-D68, a possible vaccine developed in China had shown positive results in mice. 

The larva is still confined inside the plastic container and is the same length as a grain of rice. The larva is also no longer a larva but a pupa, something that I had mentioned in the previous entry. The pupa has a hard exterior when moved around the container it sounds as if I was moving around a grain of rice. The exterior of the pupa is still a dark brown color but upon closer inspection I have noticed a white ring forming on one end of it. The pupa has small little indentations that circle around it, some of which have a white powdery substance on them. The one end that appears white is also very powdery, but the middle of it is not. This middle contains a bunch of little black dots and also is cut off very bluntly opposed to the other end that tapers off. A part of me started wondering if this was actually a pupa and not a dead wax worm.

With the plethora of vegetables that are available to us in the produce department, I've done lots of research when it comes to picking out the right types of  vegetables based on their nutrient values. Both broccoli and cauliflower are two similar vegetables that come from the variations of a wild mustard plant. Through selective breeding the wild mustard plant was domesticated to create these variations of the plant. As they are both cultivated from the same plant, both these vegetables are low in carbohydrates and calories and high in fiber. Both contain many minerals, amino acids, folate and seem to be optimal for those aiming for weight loss. Although all vegetables are good for you, broccoli contains more vitamins than the cauliflower. When looking at both vegetables the first thing you can notice is the difference in color between the two, and although both of them have similar shapes and florets, the broccoli florets are more wide spread throughout the stem.