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In the unknown lab, we started by gram staining our organism. This is a way of testing for the presence of a thick polysaccharide wall. Gram positive organisms have this thick wall, while gram negative organisms do not. To gram stain, first 4-5 drops of crystal violet are added onto the organism. Then after 60 seconds it is washed off with sterile water and 4-5 drops of iodine is added for 60 seconds. Then hydrogen peroxide is added for 10 seconds. Then safran is added for 60 seconds. Once that is done, the organism is observed under a microscope. The gram positive organisms appear purple and the gram negative organisms appear pink. Gram negative organisms consist of non-fermenters and enteric bacteria. Gram positive organisms consist of staphococci and strepococci. Oxidase tests are done on gram negative bacteria to distunguish between non-fermenters and enteric bacteria. Positive tests appear for non-fermenters. Catalase tests are done on gram positive tests to distinguisg between staphococci and strepococci. positive tests appear for staphococci. 

Another study done on plants gives a different dimension to GDSL esterase activity . In this study, a forward genetic screen reveals a brittle leaf sheath 1 (bs1) mutant that is characterized by brittle leaf sheaths. Further genomic investigation, reveals that the BS1 gene codes for a GDSL esterase that removes acetyl moieties from xylan backbones. Because xylan is a major component of secondary cell walls, secondary cell wall architecture is compromised in bs1 mutants. This suggests that this GDSL esterase allows proper secondary wall patterning to occur. BS1 is ubiquitously expressed in plants but more in vascular tissues. Subcellular examination revealed localization in the Golgi apparatus. This is interesting because prior to this discovery, no GDSL esterase/lipase had been discovered to have polysaccharide esterase activity.

The P/O ratio is determined experimentally and is a number that relates the amount of ATP generated per electron carrier. This number can vary depending on the physiological conditions. P stands for the moles of phosphoryl groups consumed to form ATP, and the O stands for moles of oxygen consumed to be reduced to water. The P/O ratio of one NADH is 2.5 ATP, and the P/O ratio of one FADH2 is 1.5 ATP. FADH2 has a lower P/O ratio because FAD has a higher affinity for electrons and donates them through the electron transport chain at complex II and contributes fewer protons to the gradient. Per glucose, 32 ATP are produced. 4 ATP are produced directly while 25 ATP are produced through NADH and 3 ATP are produced through FADH2. The total number of ATP produced can vary from 28-36 depending on the P/O ratios of NADH and FADH2 dependent on physiological conditions.

Proteins are central to all living processes. Many proteins are enzymes, the biological catalysts that drive the chemical reactions of the cell; others are structural components, providing scaffolding and support for membranes, filaments, bone, and hair. Some proteins help transport substances; others have a regulatory, communication, or defense function. All proteins are polymers composed of amino acids linked end to end. Twenty common amino acids are found in proteins. All of the common amino acids are similar in structure: each consists of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, and an R (radical) group that differs for each amino acid.

The objective of this experiment is to determine whether the complex that was created in Experiment 1 was actually K3[Fe(C2O4)3]·3H2O. More specifically, to determine the molar ratio of C2O42-/Fe3+ that then can be used to find the number of moles of K+. The analysis that was performed is mostly consistent with the complex K3[Fe(C2O4)3]·3H2O. The average mole ratio of C2O42- : Fe3+ that was created was 2.82 moles where the ideal mole ratio was 3 moles. When comparing the actual to theoretical yield, the percent yield is 94% which shows that the analysis was executed quite well with little error. One source of error could have been inaccurate readings of measurements during titrations resulting in rounding errors and throwing off calculations.

We will be comparing dietary style of bird species in relation to habitat type, and the effects these different habitats have upon beak shape and size. We will use the University of Massachusetts Amherst avian collection to collect data on bill length, depth, and width from preserved bird skins. We will use this collection because it will allow us to compare beak measurements of different species using a primary source of data. We will also use reliable ornithology research articles to find information on habitat types, behavior, and diet that will be used to compare bird species. The goal of this study is to analyze differences between beak size and shape, habitat and how they obtain their food.

Modern gene therapy tools have the potential to treat diseases through gene editing. Deadly diseases in the human genome could be eliminated or minimized. However, the technology could easily become abused. Therefore, countries have been banning research on gene editing for ethical and safety reasons. The goal of this study was to gain perspective about the opinions students have on gene editing. For our project, we surveyed 40 students attending the Univeristy of Massachusetts (UMass) Amherts about the ethics of gene therapy. The survey consisted of 10 questions, and the results were assembled into pie charts. The study showed that most people were neutral or agreed that using gene therapy to genetically modify genes to prevent lethal or genetically linked diseases was ethical. The majory also agreed that gene editing is not ethical when used for self-satisfaction and that people would use this technology for selfish purposes if it was normalized. 

An individual developed a condition characterized by progressive muscle weakness and aching muscle cramps. The symptoms were aggravated by fasting, exercise, and a high-fat diet. After several experiments, the patient was diagnosed as having a carnitine deficiency. The symptoms were aggravate by a high fat diet, exercise, or fasting because carnitine plays a role in acyl-CoA transport in fatty acid oxidation. Without carnitine, acyl-CoA will build up when trying to process lipids. Out of the pathways in the muscle cell, lipolysis will be the least affected by a carnitine deficiency since it does not occur in the muscle cell. On the other hand, acyl-CoA formation will slow down since there will be a build up of it. Also, beta-oxidation will not be able to coccursince acyl-CoA is less transported into the mitochondria.