Drafts

There are many ways to analyze DNA. Some popular methods include Gel Electrophoresis and Restriction Enzymes. The main purpose of Gel Electrophoresis is to separate DNA samples by size. The samples are attracted to the (+) end of the well, so they move in that direction. The smaller sized samples move quicker than the large ones, making it easy to distinguish by size. The use of restriction enzymes is to cut DNA at specific recognition sequences. The DNA is digested by some type of enzyme (for example EcoRI) and is fragmented into several sizes at specific sites. 

In the METHODS project, I will search and find a spider web that someone else can replicate.  In order to find a spider, I will look in the corners of my friend’s apartment. From prior experience, I know that spiders tend to make their webs in generally undisturbed areas.  Knowing this fact, I plan to look in corners that are blocked by some type of furniture. That furniture will block humans from entering that area making a better environment for spiders to make their webs.  I will also look outside between fence posts because these are easily replicable.

    With the photos I take, I will create a multi-panel scientific figure that will enable someone else to reproduce a similar spider web.  A map and a meticulous description of my methods will accompany the scientific figure to allow for easier reproduction of my spider web.

Genetic transformation is the direct uptake and incorporation of genetic material from the surroundings. This idea is the root of most bacterial cells, which can do exactly this. Another way of incorporating DNA into a different cell is through Enzymatic digestion (where cells undergo fractionation). The cell is split into component molecules, which can then be absorbed.

Gene mutation can be caused by changes in the environment and at any stage of that person’s life. They could be hereditary, this happens when these mutations are inherited from a parent that will be passed to their offspring. For example, some of the inherited gene disorders are cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia and Tay-Sachs. Permanent changes can be rare but also common that sometimes it is considered a normal variation in DNA.

Neurons have three parts to them, the soma, dendrites, and axons. The soma of a nueron is its main body, containing the cells organelles. Radiating out from the soma is the dendrites, where neurons receive signals from other neurons. Dendrites may receive either excitatory or inhibitory signals This transmission of signals is usually through the passage of neurotransmitter between the synapses of dendrites and axons. However, sometimes neurons also pass direct electrical signals through strcutrues called gap junctions. Axons are what the neuron will send a signal through. At the end of the axon is the axon terminal, where neurotransmitters are stored and ready for release. Axons almost always reach to another neurons dendrites, however there are cases where they reach to somas and even sometimes other axons.

In order for a neuron to release neurotransmitter from its axon terminal, it must produce an action potential. The action potential is caused by receiving enough of an exitatory signal at its dendrites. These signals are called graded potentials and will deteriorate over time. If enough graded potentials sum, the cell will release an action potential down its axon and release neurotransmitter to the next neuron. Action potentials are always the same strength, there is no variability to them like with graded potentials. Once they exist, they exist and travel down the axon. Of course while traveling some of the charge may leak out of the axon itself. This is prevented by having thicker axons or by the presence of a myelin sheath over the axon.

There are billions of neurons in the human body which work together and govern our thoughts, sensations and movement. Neurons, or any cell for that matter, have the ability to hold a charge in their membrane. The charge itself is caused by the passage of positively and negatively charged ions through ion channels and pumps in the membrane itself. In the human body the main positive charged ions you will find are sodium (Na), potassium (K), and calcium (Ca). Largely chloride (Cl) will be the only negatively charged ion effecting neurons.

Depolarization and the flow of these ions is governed by both the concentration and electrical gradients. At rest, the average neuron will be at about -70mV. This charge is governed by the equilibrium potential of the Na+ and K+ ions flowing between the membrane and the exterior of the cell. The concentration of K+ will be greatest inside the cell and low outside he cell. In contrast, Na+ will have a high concentration outside the cell and a low concentration inside the cell. Therefore when say, a K+ channel opens, large amounts of K+ will leave the cell, pushing its electrical potential more negative and hyperpolarize it. When an Na+ channel opens, large amounts of Na+ will rush into the cell, pushing its electrical potential to be more positive and depolarizing it.

Thursday morning was a busy morning for me. I spent a lot of time getting from place to place. This was done in many ways such as walking, by bus, and taking elevators. In my building I live on the seventh floor so I usually take the elevator down to the first floor, instead of the stairs. I also take the elevator to get back to my room because it is more coinvent. My building is in close proximity to the dining hall so I walk there, and also walk to the building where my classroom is. The classroom building is not very close to my building, so I take the bus back to save time. The bus is also used when I need to go to the post office to drop off packages.

In the research article, the headings consist of the experimental steps of the experiment. They include a summary, introduction, materials and methods, results and a discussion. The reviewed article does not have these as markers. Instead, they can change frequently and are descriptive of what is about to be discussed.

The first paragraph of the research article is the summary section. This serves to set up the experiment that was performed and what they set out to accomplish. It lays out the points that the authors say they found evidence to support. The review article begins with an abstract. This is less focused on a experiment and more on Myrmecomorphs and their resemblance to ants. This explains the type of mimicry they say is at play and why it came about. These two sections are a paragraph apiece, but other sections are longer and compose multiple paragraphs. Some also contain data tables and figures.

The research article uses in text citations with the author and year. It then finishes with a reference page at the very end of the article. The review also uses in text citation but usually mentions the author and then puts the year in parentheses. If there is more than one reference, the author names and year will both be listed in parentheses. This also ends with a reference cited section at the very end of the article.

Both articles seem to have well written paragraphs that flow together. The paragraphs begin with a topic sentence and then flow into more detail. The research article seems to be more abrupt at getting directly into the subject matter and the paragraphs flow together so that the topic sentence of one picks up from the end of the preceding paragraph. Taken alone, they may be less of a standard topic sentence to a paragraph, but the research article is meant to flow from one paragraph to another and when read this way makes sense. The review article takes more liberties in the time it takes to explain something and has paragraphs that can stand independently more often. The review does not have something to cohesively represent like the research article and can therefore take more time in explaining detail that can stand as an independent paragraph. The separate details then make separate paragraphs which serve to inform the reader.

It surprised me that the research was shorter than the review because we often think of research as being expansive and gathering a lot of data. This makes sense however given that the research article is meant to encapsulate the whole experiment and convey those ideas while also being brief. This is not to say that the results are written with a sense of levity but rather an exactness to convey the necessary. It solidified the importance of being able to flow from paragraph to paragraph without necessarily using a new topic sentence but one that continued the train of thought but showed progression in the article. The review was able to take more time in doing this and gave more detail than may be necessary in a research article. The research is meant for other experts in the field, where as the review had information that explained the goings on to those who may not poses the same level of expertise.

I would not expect to find this relationship between local and regional diversity in nature.  I do not think this is possible to observe in nature because the local species richness is higher than the regional species richness at all points on the line.  The axes are set equal to each other and the slope of the line is higher than 1, making local richness higher than regional richness. This is not possible because the number of species found in the local area would have to factor into the number of species in the regional area, constantly making the regional area higher in richness.

Antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest threats to global health, food security, and development we are facing today. Antibiotic resistance can effect anybody, of any age, anywhere in the world. This process occurs naturally, but the misuse of antibiotic drugs by humans had accelerated the process and is causing common infections to become more difficult to treat. Other side effects of antibiotic resistance include longer hospital stays, higher medical bills, and increased mortality. In order to combat this growing problem, the world needs to change the way it prescribes and uses antibiotics. Even if new antibiotics are developed, they will quickly become ineffective if the same practices used today are still in place. This behavior change does not only apply to doctors, but applies to everyone around the world. Most people are not prescribing antibiotics on a regular basis, but their behaviors can still contribute to antibiotic resistance. By reducing he spread of infections through vaccinations, hand washing, practicing safe sex, and good food hygine, we can all do our part to limit antibiotic resistance. This is a global issue that has the potential to effect everybody on the planet, and it seems as if not enough people are talking about it or taking steps to limit it. By raising awareness about this issue, we can work together to ensure that antibiotic resistance does not get out of control.