Drafts

• Embryos that have only one of the two sets of parental chromosomes = uniparental embryos
• Process to give embryos specific chromosomes from one parent only = uniparental disomy
  • Is this done to just investigate specific chromosomes? Or, are there natural processes where certain chromosomes from a set  get transferred and others don't? (seems unlikely)
• Previous research has shown that mammalian genes can function differently dependent upon whether they come from mother or father.
• Imprinted genes are expressed differently on paternal and maternal genes (first discovered, 1990s)
  • Methylation marks imprinted genes differently in egg and sperm

For in-vitro experiments, small fast-folding domains are most preferred as they are amenable to a great extent to observe the detailed physio-chemical behavior of R-groups and other primary, secondary, or tertiary interactions. However, small single domain proteins are very rare, and recent studies have suggested that the folding of domains in multi-domain proteins may not even be an independent process (if we look at the folding of domains as component of a larger protein). Thus, recent studies have tried to focus on in-vitro protein folding of larger proteins, and the results confirm the hypothesis that new complexities in folding landscape will emerge when multiple domains are interacting.

Biologists in Africa’s Albertine Rift region recently made a surprising discovery – a new species of bird living high in the mountains of this incredibly biodiverse area. They named this bird Willard’s Sooty Boubou, which is opposed to another previously recognized high-elevation species, the Mountain Sooty Boubou. These birds appear quite similar, but live at different elevations. Willard’s Sooty Boubou is found at approximately 1200-1900 meters, and the Mountain Sooty Boubou is found at 1800-3800 meters. While the team was quite happy to find this new bird, after analyzing its habitat they soon realized that more than half of it had been destroyed for agricultural needs. This has sparked debates in the local area on taking measures to protect the environment and conserve what is left of this birds habitat before it goes extinct. By better understanding this new species of bird and identifying what kind of ecological niche it fills, scientists can learn how to better protect it in the face of growing threats.

It’s important to test Lee for genetic disorder with non-cancerous cells because in cancerous cells, countless mutations have already taken place. If we use a cell with mutations, it is hard to determine the problem in the first place or which parent/gene the disease is inherited from. The DNA sequence may also be altered which coded for Lee’s condition. Going forward with non-cancerous cell, if we test the relevant parent/gene then we can find out the identity of the genetic disorder.

However, scientists nowadays are starting to think that perhaps Lamarck's theory wasn't completely outrageous. The reason behind this phenomenon is because hereditary epigenetic changes seem to violate Mendelian principles. Epigenetic changes occur by transcriptional modifications due to alterations on histone tail charges, chromatin binding, X-chromosome inactivations etc.  Although these changes pass on from mother to daughter cells, normally the modifications are erased in the germ cells. Recently, however, accumulating evidence suggests the opposite: passing on of epimutations. The phenomenon "has been spotted in plants, fruit flies and yeast". There was also a major study in mammals that indicated towards epimutations heredity. 

A hormone is a substance produced in the body that directs and regulates the events occuring inside of certain cells or organs. Hormones are classified by both how they travel in the body and their chemical structure. There are five classifications based on how they travel in the body; endocrine, paracrine, autocrine, intracrine, and juxtacrine. Endocrine hormones act at distance over the body, while paracrine hormones act within the tissue they are synthesized. Autocrine hormones act on the cell they are produced by; they are secreted and then attach to the receptors on the surface to trigger a reaction. Intracrine hormones also act on the cells they are produced by, but they act directly inside the cell rather than through the receptors on the outside of the cell. Juxtacrine hormones act on juxtaposed cells. They are chemically classified into four groups; amines, peptides/proteins, steroids, and eicosanoids... and are also classified as either water-soluble or lipid-soluble. Amines and peptide/protein hormones are water-soluble and target cells by acting on receptors on their membranes. Steroids and eicosanoids are lipid-soluble and thus can penetrate the cell membrane and act within the cell.

The ribosome is another organelle in the cell that has an extremely important role. These tiny, but essential structures should not be overlooked, as they perform functions that are necessary for human life. Ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic reticulum or in the cytoplasm. When they are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, it is known as the ‘rough’ endoplasmic reticulum. The ribosomes contain important RNAs named the ribosomal RNAs which help the ribosome carry out its main function; protein synthesis. This process is seen in translation; the ribosome uses the mRNA strand to form a completely new protein. From there, the polypeptide chains can be synthesized into tertiary and quaternary structures. Proteins are essential to human life and carry out a myriad of chemical functions. 

During the rise of the Amniotes over 330 million years ago, a shift in skull formation took place that is now being used to classify ancient organisms that used to roam the Earth. As a little background, the Amniotic family includes subfamilies like mammals, testudines (turtles), Lepidosauria (lizards, snakes, etc.) and the rest of the vertebral phylogeny. Each subsequent family is unique in that their dermatocranias each formed a fenestration, or hole. The location and number of holes in the skull allow us to classify the organisms into smaller groups. For example, an anapsid organism has no fenestrations in its skull. An organism, like a lepidosaur, would be a diapsid organism and have two fenestrations in its skull. The first of which is the dorsal fenestra located at the junction of the parietal, post orbital, and squamosal bones. The second is the lateral fenestra located at the junction of the jugal, quadratojugal, squamosal, and post orbital bones. Lastly, mammals are synapsid organisms meaning they only have one lateral fenestra in their dermatocranium.

The central dogma of microbiology is the idea that there is movement of information from our genome to a movable RNA strand, and then it is translated into a protein. In relation to cancer, this process is extremely important because the function of the protein can be traced back to the coding of the DNA. Any issues with said protein could help identify how cancer cells pass down cancerous behavior, how such a behavior is transcribed, and what happens when this protein tries to function. The mutation in a genome can elicit a mutation in a proto-oncogene (pushy positive proteins in healthy cells) and tumor suppressors and thus a tumor is now able to form. When a proto-oncogene is mutated it becomes an oncogene and always remains active, signaling to the cell to continuously grow and develop without stopping.

Most animals use sound as a form of communication and with it are able to express many different things. It is often a key factor in survival and in many cases, if an organism cannot communicate properly or well enough, they may not survive. In some gull species, there are certain sounds used for specific needs, such as finding a mate, locating food, or claiming territory. These sounds are also often used in different scenarios based on the time of year. Sounds used to find a mate for example, are later used to communicate with that mate when caring for the young and finding food. The sounds are versatile and have different meanings based on the context. The sounds of birds is recorded and analyzed for different measurements when studied. The band width of sound can be measured by subtracting the lower frequency from the higher frequency. There is a bigger difference between the high and low frequencies in wide bandwidths and a smaller difference in short bandwidths. The trill rate is how often a sound is made, or how quickly. The trill is known as a high performance form of communication, because it requires a lot of energy. There is a trade off between these two sounds because one cannot have a wide bandwidth as well a high trill rate, the bird is incapable of doing both really well at the same time. A higher or faster trill rate is accompanied by a short bandwidth because it is too difficult to have a wide bandwidth and fast trill rate.