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Taxonomic classification is a nested heirarchy of categories for classifying organisms. It begins with the species that is named by binomial nomenclature, including the genus and particular species name. For example,, panthera pardus is a leopard. The next group is slighlty more broad and is just panthera. Panthera includes big cats that have the ability to roar. Next is the family, in this example, felidae. Members of this family have retractable claws. The next classification is order, in this case carnivora. These members have carnassial teeth. Class is the next step which is mammalia. It then goes phylum (chordata), kingdom (animalia), and domain (eukarya). This is the basics of taxonomy. It is similar to a pyramid in the sense that it narrows as it goes down the categories. So species is very specific and with each step headed towards domain, the categories get broader and broader and include more and more organisms. 

In this class we will be determining the evolutionary history of behaviors by mapping behaviors on already existing phylogenies. The behaviors will not be used to create the phylogeny, instead we will be mapping the bahaviors on already existing phylogenies. Behaviors on a phylogeny do not  necessarily mean that they will get more complex with evolution, in some cases behaviors or characteristics can be lost within a phylogeny. 

Picking only one dog breed to save is quite impossible as all dogs are friendly and make great pets for families all around the world. However, if I had to pick one dog breed to save it would the labrador retriever. This is the most popular dog breed according to the "Most Popular Dog Breeds List" from the American Kennel Club. Labrador retrievers have ranked number one since 2013 and are therefore an important breed to the American people. If we could only save one breed, saving the most popular breed would be a good choice because once this litter begins to repopulate and grow, the majority of Americans who lost a dog would have lost a labrador retriever, so they could be given another retriever. Although you can never replace an old dog, getting a new dog of the same breed is a good way to deal with the loss. Repopulating the dog population with the most popular dog breed would ensure the majority of people that lost a dog would be happy with getting a new dog.

Labrador retrievers are also great dogs for anyone looking for a new pet. They are gentle and are perfect for families, especially ones with young children. They are athletic and high energy so they are perfect for young people looking for a dog to play with and to go on runs. They also make great service dogs and can be trained to be emotional support dogs or service dogs for anyone with a disability. They would be able to repopulate the service dog population. Labradors also calm with age and older retrievers can make a good match for older people looking for a dog to keep them company. These dogs are not too high maintenance because they are short hair so they don't shed as much as other dogs and they are relatively clean.

Repopulating the dog population with retrievers would ensure that we have a flexible and diverse dog for anyone interested in having a dog and they also are a popular dog, so a great majority of the population would be happy having this as the new dog.

Picking only one dog breed to save is quite impossible as all dogs are friendly and amake great pets for families all around the world. However, if I had to pick one dog breed to save it would the labrador retreiver. These are the most popular dog breed according to the "Most Popular Dog Breeds List" from the American Kennel Club. Labrador retreivers have ranked number one since 2013 and are therefore an important breed to the American people. If we could only save one breed, saving the most popular breed would be a good choice because onec this litter begins to repopulate and grow, the majority of americans who lost a dog would have lost a labrador retreiver, so they could be given another retreiver. Although you can never replace an old dog, getting a new dog of the same breed is a good way to deal with the loss. Repopulating the dog population with the most popular dog breed would also ensure the majority of people that lost a dog would be happy with getting a new dog.

Labrador retreivers are also great dogs for anyone looking for a new pet. They are gentle and are perfect for families. They are athletic and high energy so they are perfect for young people looking for a dog to play with and to go on runs. They also make great service dogs and can be trained to be emotional support dogs or service dogs for anyone with a disability. They would be able to repopulate the service dog population. Labradors also calm with age and older dogs can make a good match for older people looking for a dog to keep them company while not being too high maintence, because they are short hair so they don't shed as much as other dogs and they are relatively clean. 

Repopulating the dog population with retreivers would ensure that we have a flexible and diverse dog for anyone interested in having a dog and they also are a popular dog, so a great majority of the population would be happy having this as the new dog. 

As a result of climate change, globally there are rising water levels everywhere and melting ice caps, leading to an increase in these sea levels. In the Mediterranean, a sea level increase of more than 2 feet is expected by the end of the century. However, a sea level increase of 1.7 feet would be enough to flood the beaches of Alexandria and displace 8 million people throughout Alexandria and the surrounding delta. Since 1964, a strong positive increase in sea level can be seen in Figure 1. This graph shows the sea level trends at Alexandria Harbour Station from 1944 to 2006. The area in gray was data collected prior to the building of the dam, so the increase here can likely be attributed to sediment build up and therefore disregarded. The completion of the dam between 1963 and 1964 is indicated by the change in color and this positive relationship is likely attributed to climate change. There is a clear indication of sea levels rising in Alexandria, which have lead to salt water infiltrating soil and irrigation as well as leading to increased flooding.

Excitation contraction coupling is the process that leads to muscle contraction. This begins with an action potential arriving at the motor neuron which triggers the release of acetylcholine. The release of acetylcholine allows acetylcholine to diffuse into the sarcolemma and bind to receptors in the motor end plate. The motor end plate is a specialized region of the muscle fibers plasma region. The binding of acetycholine changes ion permeability which leads to a graded depolarization of the muscle plamsa membrane, this is the end plate potential. This series of events leads to the series of event in which muscle contration occurs. 

A muscle twitch has three phases. The first phase is the latent phase in which time elapses between the generation of an action potential in a muscle cell and the beginning of the muscle contraction. The second phase is the contraction phase, this is where muscle contraction occurs. The cross bridge process that causes the overlapping of myosin and actin cause muscle contraction. The cross bridge cycle occurs in this second phase of a muscle twtich. The third phase is the relaxation phase, this is the peak tension of the muscle contraction until the end of muscle contraction. During this period, sarcomeres increase in length and the force generated decreases. 

A skeletal muscle is able to produce tension, which is muscle force, when it recieves a nervous or an electrical stimualation. An increase in stimulation intensity leads to an increase in the number of active motor units. An increase in active motor units leads to an increase in muscle tension. The power of muscle contraction is related to the number of active motor units, so  a muscle contraction with few active motor untis is not as strong as a muscle contraction with with many active motor units. More force means more active motor units which means more total force. 

Methods

    Individually the three of us watched 2 videos of domestic Morgan horses,  Equus-caballus, at the UMass Hadley Farm. Both videos had two mares and two foals of about 6 months old. We individually watched and observed the behaviors of the four horses for 48 minutes and 35 seconds, created a list of behaviors, and recorded the time each behavior occurred. We compared our lists and compiled all the behaviors into one table and categorized them into 6 categories: grooming, locomotion, playing, feeding, comfort, and body positioning. We determined the categories by grouping like behaviors together and establishing certain characteristics of each category. Grooming was categorized by the horse gnawing at himself or licking. Locomotion was categorized by moving locations. Playing included interaction with other horses by nudging, jumping, or gnawing. Feeding was categorized by behaviors that included the horse’s head touching the grass and the ground. Comfort included behaviors that involve just the horse, such as tail waving, or interactions between the foal and the mare. We categorized body positioning as movements to the horse’s posture while they remained stationary. We rewatched the videos and took a screenshot of the behaviors at the time that we observed each behavior. The screenshots were placed into the table and a description of each behavior was formulated. We organized the table by the category and within each category, the behaviors appear chronologically.

Methods

    Individually the three of us watched 2 videos of domestic Morgan horses,  Equus-caballus, at the UMass Hadley Farm. Both videos had two mares and two foals off about 6 months old. We individually watched and observed the behaviors of the four horses for 48 minutes and 35 seconds and created a list of behaviors and recorded the time each behavior occurred. We compared our lists and compiled all the behaviors into one table and categorized them into 6 categories: grooming, locomotion, playing, feeding, comfort, and body positioning. We determined the categories by grouping like behaviors together and establishing certain characteristics of each category. We rewatched the videos and took a screenshot of each behavior at the time that we observed each behavior. The screenshots were placed into the table and a description of each behavior was created.

The cross bridge cycle is responsible for the contraction of muscles. A muslce is made up of myosin and actin. Actin is the thin filament and myosin is the thick filament. The muscle recieves a stimulus from a nerve cell that results in the release of calcium from an internal storage within the muscle. The increase of calcium concentration within the microfibules is what allows the cross bridge cycle to take place. The cross bridges cannot form without calcium because calcium is what allows the active sites to become exposed and without exposed acctive sites, the bridges cannot form. Calcium binds to troponin and as a result troponin changes it's shape. This shape change alters the positioning of the tropomyosin which exposes the active sites. The cross birdges then form. In the presence of calcium, the myosin binds to the actin. The next step is the powerstroke which is when the myosin head pivots, pulling the actin to the center of the sarcomere. ADP is released in this step. In the next step, ATP binds which triggers detachment. The cross bridge detaches as a result of atp hydrolysis. During the last step, ATP hydrolysis the myosin head is coked. The use of energy from ATP to ADP is used to rebind. This is one full cylce of the cross bridge cycle. 

There are two factors that are necessary in cross bridge formation; elevated calcium concentrations and ATP. Elevated concentration of calcium concentration is a requirement because cross bridges cannot form without calcium changing the shape of troponin. An adequate supply of ATP is also necessary because this process requires energy. 

This video contained two mare and two foals of about 6 months. Throughout the half hour of video, you could watch them interact with each other as well as the environment in a number of ways. We grouped the behaviors into a different groups that included: feeding, playing, communicating, and other. The other contained behaviors that did not match another group well. Behaviors found under play included the foals running, jumping, prancing, and nudging one another. The foals would nuddge one another with their heads and this would entice a reaction out of the other foal, so this one could also be placed under communication. Many of the acts fall somewhere in between categories and they are not completely concrete. Feeding was put as its own category because the horses were often observed to be grazing. Even at points where they may not have been eating, they often had their heads toward the ground nudging around the grass. They looked to be continuously grazing almost. Communication was another big category of traits observed. Horses can be seen nudging other horses and neighing. Communication is observed when a stimulus from another horse that entices a reaction from another horse. When a reaction is observed of the second horses behavior is alterede as a result of the stimulus. Some behaviors under the other category include the horses scratching along the fence and other random movements. 

The cross bridge cycle is responsible for the contraction of muscles. The sarcomere is what actually contracts. A muslce is made up of myosin and actin. Actin is the thin filament and myosin is the thick filament. The muscle recieves a stimulus from a nerve cell that results in the release of calcium from an internal storage within the muscle. The increase of calcium concentration within the microfibules is what allows the cross bridge cycle to take place. The cross bridges cannot form without calcium because calcium is what allows the active sites to become exposed and without exposed acctive sites, the bridges cannot form. Calcium binds to troponin and as a result troponin changes it's shape. This shape change alters the positioning of the tropomyosin which exposes the active sites. The cross birdges then form. In the presence of calcium, the myosin binds to the actin. The next step is the powerstroke which is when the myosin head pivots, pulling the actin to the center of the sarcomere. ADP is released in this step. In the next step, ATP binds which triggers detachment. The cross bridge detaches as a result of atp hydrolysis. During the last step, ATP hydrolysis the myosin head is coked. The use of energy from ATP to ADP is used to rebind. This is one full cylce of the cross bridge cycle. 

There are two factors that are necessary in cross bridge formation. These two factors are an elevated concentration of calcium because cross bridges cannot form without calcium changing the shape of troponin. An adequate supply of ATP is also necessary becaue this proces requires energy.