eehardy's blog

Before Einstein developed his theory of Gravity, Newtonian Gravity was the widely accepted theory. Newtonian gravity works out mathematically for most instances. 

Newtonian gravity states that the strength of gravity depends on the distance between two objects. Einstein found fault with this particular idea, since according to his theory of relativity, the distance between any two objects changes based on an observer’s reference frame. Thus, Einstein set force to develop a gravitational theory cohesive with his theory of special relativity. After years of work on “General Relativity,” Einstein concluded that gravity is the result of a curvature in a four-dimensional fabric that makes up our universe, which he termed “spacetime." Space and time are not the distinct and absolute qualities we perceive them to be, according to Einstein. Rather, “Three-Dimensional Space” and “Time” actually exist as a single continuum of four-dimensional “spacetime.” Mass curves this fabric of spacetime, similar to the way a heavy ball would pull down the center of a trampoline. If you were to roll a little ball on the trampoline with the heavy ball in the center, the little ball would be drawn toward the bigger ball would rotate around it in a circle. Normally, the little ball would follow a straight line, but the larger ball in the middle distorts the surface of the trampoline, and thus the path of other objects on it. This is analogous to gravity for us, but the earth replaces the big ball and the objects on and surrounding the earth replace the smaller ball. The earth warps spacetime and this causes the inward pull of gravity that we experience on earth. 

Previously to Einstein’s theory of Gravity was Newtonian Gravity, which worked perfectly for most instances. According to Newtonian gravity, the strength of gravity depends on the distance between two objects. Einstein found fault with this particular idea since according to his theory of relativity, the distance between any two objects changes based on an observer’s reference frame. Thus, Einstein set force to develop a gravitational theory cohesive with his special relativity. Einstein concluded after years of work on “General Relativity” that gravity is the result of a curvature in a four-dimensional fabric that makes up our universe called spacetime. Space and time are not the distinct and absolute qualities we perceive them to be, according to Einstein. Rather, “Three-Dimensional Space” and “Time” actually exist as a single continuum of four-dimensional spacetime. Mass can actually curve this fabric of spacetime, similar to the way a heavy ball would pull down the center of a trampoline it was sitting on. If you were to roll a little ball on the trampoline with the heavy ball in the center, the little ball would be drawn toward the bigger ball would rotate around it in a circle. Normally, the little ball would follow a straight line, but the larger ball in the middle distorts the surface of the trampoline, and thus the path of other objects on it. This is analogous to gravity for us, but the earth replaces the big ball and the objects on and surrounding the earth replace the smaller ball. The earth warps spacetime and this causes the inward pull of gravity that we experience on earth. 

The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between spider body size and spider web thickness. Spider webs are a material of interest to people because they are remarkably strong and able to withstand large forces, yet also soft. They vary widely in strength, some have even been said to be able to withstand hurricane force winds.  They have a very high elasticity. Discovering the various factors that contribute to differences in spider web characteristics, such as thickness, could help us learn more about the factors that contribute to their extreme elasticity and could be useful for Material engineering of a material that is both strong and soft. A previous study performed using polarized light microscopy has shown that there is some variation both in the spider silk diameters, and the mechanical characterization of silk.

The breed of dogs that should be saved is the havanese. Havenese are a small breed of dogs that have a very long life span and often have good health. Larger breeds of dogs could more quickly be reestablished by breeding wild/non domestic wolves or coyotes, but it would take many,many more years and cycles to return to smaller breeds of dogs. Smaller breeds of dogs are also easier for people such as the elderly to take care of and have in their house, and studies have shown that having a pet can help reduce symptoms of dementia, agitation, and loneliness in the elderly. Tennis player Venus Williams has a havenese, and is still able to take care of him despite her busy lifestyle. Havenese are very friendly, happy, loving, and easy to take care of, making them the perfect choice. 

The significance of completing this research is that it will help us to understand more about the variables that affect the thickness of spider webs. Spider webs are a material of interest to people because they are remarkably strong and able to withstand large forces, yet also soft. They vary widely in strength, some have even been said to be able to withstand hurricane force winds.  They have a very high elasticity. Discovering the various factors that contribute to differences in spider web characteristics, such as thickness, could help us learn more about the factors that contribute to their extreme elasticity and could be useful for Material engineering of a material that is both strong and soft.

The impact of completing this research is that it will help us to understand more about what affects the thickness of spider webs. Spider webs are notably strong and able to withstand large forces, while simultaneously being very soft. They vary widely in strength, some have even been said to be able to withstand hurricane force winds.  They have a very high elasticity. Discovering what contributes to differences in spider web characteristics, like their thickness, could help us learn more about the factors that contribute to their extreme elasticity and could be useful for Material engineering.

The cytoskeleton has diverse functions, owing to the diverse structure of the proteins and filaments that form it. The interactions between these proteins result in emergent properties that add yet another layer to these diverse functions. Two major proteins in the cytoskeleton are actin and tubulin, which comprise microtubules and microfilaments respectively. Actin and tubulin have different structures and functions, and interact with each other to create emergent properties. One characteristic that is extremely different in tubulin and actin is their stiffness; microtubules made of tubulin are much more stiff than microfilaments made of actin. When these two proteins are added together in high concentrations, they interact sterically, and as a result, conform to the “reptation” or “tube” model. Each filament is spatially restricted to a tube-like area, which is formed by the constraining filaments around it. In order to relax and decrease the straining forces on it, the filament reptates, (sliding curvilinearly) out of its tubular space. There are other methods by which the filaments can partially relax, such as bending fluctuations.The interactions that occur in cells between actin and tubulin are integral to cellular function. Interactions between these proteins provide controlled, structured support of the cytoskeleton. They also are also important in cytokinesis and cell motility. Another key trait of microtubule-actin interactions is their ability to reinforce each other’s strength and elasticity. When interacting with the supporting actin network around it, a microtubule can withstand much larger forces without buckling than it would be able to withstand alone. Learning the interactions of these filaments has several different potential applications. In material engineering, tweaking the ratio of softer, more flexible rods (such as actin) to stiffer rods (such as tubulin) could help one discover the ideal ratio to be used to synthesize a material that is light yet durable. Combinations of actin and tubulin also provide the possibility for increased control over large-scale mechanics. 

I took Resource Economics 212 to fulfill my statistics requirement. We learned about common statistical notation. For example P(A) stands for probability of event A. P(A U B) stands for the probability that A OR B will happen, whereas P(A ∩ B) stands for the probability that BOTH A and B will happen. P(A I B) is the probability of event A, given that event B occurred. We also learned about standard deviation, which tells you, on average, how much the values as a whole are different from the average, i.e. determining whether they all right around the middle, or are there a lot on the lower end and a lot on the higher end that just average out to a middle value.  We learned how to calculate permutations and combinations as well. Permutations are the number of different ways a set of things from a group of things can be arranged, paying attention to their order, while combinations are also a set selected from a group but not paying attention to the order.

The cellular cytoskeleton has a large number of functions, due to the varying structure of cytoskeletal proteins and filaments, and their various interactions. Two major proteins in the cytoskeleton are actin and tubulin, which comprise microtubules and microfilaments respectively. Actin and tubulin have different structures and functions, and interact with each other to create emergent properties. They have very different stiffnesses. When together in high concentrations, they have steric interactions that conform to the “reptation” or “tube” model. Each filament is spatially restricted to a tube-like area, which is formed by the constraining filaments around it. To relax and decrease the straining forces on it, it reptates, (sliding curvilinearly) out of its tubular space. There are other methods by which the filaments can partially relax, such as bending fluctuations. The interactions that occur in cells between actin and tubulin provide controlled, structured support of the cytoskeleton. Their interactions are also important in cytokinesis and cell motility. Microtubule strength is also reinforced by the presence of supporting actin; they can withstand greater forces without buckling in the presence of actin than they can on their own. Studying the interactions of these filaments has different potential applications. Potentially, one could learn to identify an ideal ratio of soft to rigid rods to be used in the synthesis of a material that effectively combines light weight with durability. Combinations of actin and tubulin also provide the possibility for increased control over large-scale mechanics. Previous research studies have shown that actin is compressible in the presence of microtubules, and that low concentrations of microtubules added to cross-linked actin cause strain-stiffening in the actin, as opposed to the normal strain-softening that usually occurs in cross-linked actin. These previous studies, however, were limited in a few ways. The parameter space of the composite matter was limited, so differences between varying concentrations and ratios of actin and tubulin were not measured to be contrasted. The studies also measured large-scale strain and micro-scale strain, but not mesoscale strain which would be more useful based on the mesh size of actin and tubulin. These studies also used microtubules that were pre-polymerized before they were added to the actin, which oftentimes encourages actin bundling, preventing the possibility of a truly isotropic composites. In contrast, the study “Co-Entangled Actin-Microtubule Composites Exhibit Tunable Stiffness and Power-Law Stress Relaxation”methodically varies the relative concentrations of tubulin and actin and characterizes mesoscale mechanics of the filaments by displacing optically trapped microspheres by 30 µm at a rate that is very high compared to the normal relaxation rate of the filaments, and measuring the restoring force that the composite applies to the sphere. These measurements disrupt the equilibrium of the composite and allow exploration for possible buckling, rupture, and rearrangement. 

Original figure created by me. (A) The campus map cropped to include a small area around the Student Union, which is circled in red. (B) The whole front of the student Union is pictured in this horizontal image that I took, including all four of the pots in front of it. The pot which the spider is on is circled in red.  (C)The specific pot on which the spider is located is pictured, which 2 thick, vertical, red arrows indicating the location of the spider on the pot in between the vertical ridges in the center of the pot. (D) This is the close up, final image of the spider on the pot. The spider is circled in red.

Replicate figure created by classmate. (A) The campus map is cropped to include a large area around the Student Union. The student Union is not circled. (B) The front of the Student Union is pictured. The photo is vertical, so only part of the building horizontally is pictured. (C)The location of the spider on the pot. 2 slanted, horizontal arrows depict the location of the spider, inside a circular ridge at the top of the pot. (D) The final zoomed in image. The circular ridge of the pot is shown, and there is no real spider in the image but a cartoon one is drawn in and circled in red.