Drafts

Another possible study we can do as a class is a study on produce or fruit from different supermarkets. We could all buy the same item from various supermarkets, and we each person could record its color, if it's organic or not, and where it was grown. We can leave the fruit/produce out and observe how it rots over time. We could also measure the size of the food item if we need more variables to study. This experiment would be impactful for learning about preservatives used in the food we purchase at grocery stores. It could also show us the difference in shelf life between organic and non-organic foods. There are various grocery stores students can visit to purchase their sample, including Trader Joe's, Big Y, Stop and Shop, Aldi, Target, and Whole Foods. Possible food items to observe are apples, spinach, bananas, avocados, tomatoes, carrots, etc. If its a food item with multiple varieties, such as apples, we would probably keep the variety observed constant. We may have to do research on shelf life ahead of time to choose a food item that won't rot in too short or too long a time. 

    Currently, there are a lot of allergies in the world, and it seems like you can be allergic to almost anything. Yet does the possibility exist that we will be able to stop being allergic to anything as a species in the future? As of right now, the only “remedy” to an allergy lies in using an epipen when an allergic reaction occurs. The solution right now only exists by eliminating the problem in case it occurs. Yet couldn’t we genetically engineer a method that allows us to alter our bodies so that allergens are not considered foreign anymore? That would solve the root of the problem and allow us to live without allergies. Of course, this solution brings forth a lot of ethical issues. If we are able to become immune to allergens, what’s stopping us from doing cosmetic changes based off our genome? This would introduce a lot more problems such as the standard of beauty in society, how important we view attractiveness, etc. As of current, the only methodology that’s similar yet ethical to this would be through epigenetics--where our genetics are altered due to outside stimuli. We are able to grow older and eventually “grow out” of our allergies, but are even able to become allergic to new things when we get older.

This isn’t exactly biology-related, but we had to write papers for an archaeology course this week: The archaeological site that I have selected is the Saugus Iron Works National Historic Site located in Saugus, Massachusetts. Founded by John Winthrop the Younger, it was supposedly in operation between 1646 and approximately 1668. The site was renamed Saugus Iron Works National Historic Site and became part of the National Park System in 1968 due to its significance to the early history of the United States. The site is nationally significant because it is the birthplace of the iron and steel industry in Colonial America, starting and sustaining skilled iron making technology in the New World. The Saugus Iron Works initiated the distribution of workers to other parts of Colonial America where they were able to establish other iron producing facilities. This was critical to the development of industry and technology in the emerging American country. In the early 17th century, iron was used to create indispensable goods such as nails, horseshoes, cookware, tools, and weapons. However the production and manufacturing of iron could only be completed by an industrial enterprise which was not available in North America during the early years of English colonization. Hence all iron goods had to be imported which was very expensive. Winthrop believed that because the colonies had a cheap and abundant supply of materials, an iron works in Massachusetts could be made to produce goods for the Colonies as well as in England itself. Eventually the Braintree Iron Works in Braintree Massachusetts was created to be the first iron works, but proved to be unsuccessful due to a lack of iron ore in the area and an inadequate supply of water to power the machinery. A new manager arose, Richard Leader, who selected a location on the Saugus River to build the next iron works called Hammersmith, which proved to be successful and one of the most technically advanced iron works in the New World.

    They say that unless a child starts learning a language before the age of 6, they will be unable to speak proficiently and fluently enough that they sound native. This is technically incorrect. The way the brain picks up language is actually very similar to how we interpret music. For music, the brain will make “presets” that determine what “music is”. Our brain will then listen to other pieces of music, and compare it with the preset that we have as to what music is defined as. If the preset does not match to what we are listening to, then the brain will decide “oh we do not like this”. The same goes for language, but in a slightly different sense. The brain will create presets based on the sounds that are created in an alphabet of a language. For example, our brain distinctly knows the difference in sound between a “ruh” sound for “r”, and a “luh” sounds for “l”, and is able to formulate the differences in these two sounds. Languages like Japanese or Korean, do not have a distinctive “r” or “l” sound, so when native Japanese or Korean people hear the words “law” and “raw”, they hear the same thing because they never developed the preset to differentiate the two sounds. For them, the two words sound the same. So instead, the child simply has to be exposed to (at the very least) the alphabet of a language in order to still be able to speak proficiently and fluently if they would like to study the language in the future.

Solutions to prevent further deforestation include several national parks including Virunga in the eastern DRC, wildlife reserves such as the Okapi Reserve in the transitional forest of northern DRC, and other heritage sites located in the Sangha Trinational area of Cameroon, Republic of Congo, and Central African Republic. Other reserves are using mixed landscapes and biosphere programs to include nature conservation and sustainable human use, and to provide additional revenue for local communities. Also researchers are working conserve mountain gorilla landscapes in the montane forests of the eastern Congo basin, through ecotourism, community projects, and park management. One of the major programs combating deforestation is the UN-REDD Program (where developed countries, pay forest rich developing countries for conserving their forests and manage forests more sustainably). Most conservation efforts are enforced by militant forces. Guards with guns stop people from entering the forests and restrict hunting.

    In general, it can be agreed upon that order and law is required in order to run a successful business or maintain stability in society. Yet is this always the case? For example, a grocery store throws out tons and tons (literally) of food every single day. Grocery stores throw out over 43 billion tons of food annually. That food can be used in order to feed the homeless or feed people who don’t have enough food for groceries. Yet due to laws and liability issues, large grocery stores like Market Basket are not allowed to do that. I think it’s undeniable though that the food is being put to waste, and should be used better. In 2010, there was a lot more advocating for a change in the system, and allowing the food to be distributed to homeless shelters in order to prevent such wastefulness. There was a lot of talk of trying to pass a bill that would allow the grocery stores to be protected in case someone were to eat something that gave them food poisoning. Although a lot of health risks and problems may arise from people eating the food, as long as they consent to the food that they eat and know where it’s coming from, then there should be no liability issues present. Personally, I don’t see how that bill never passed and why we’re allowed to watch so much food go to waste.

The Bombay Phenotype is a genetic trait in which the given indivdual expresses no A or B antibodies in their blood resulting in the O blood type. This is due to another third antigen H on the surface of the blood cell which effects the ability of the A and B antigens from forming. If a individual is double recessive for this H antigen, hh, it will result in none of the H antigen being produced. Since this H antigen is required for the formation of the A and B antigens, if no H antigen is produced regardless of the genetype the cell will be unble to generate any A or B antigens resulting in the O blood type. This means that it is possible for an AB parent to have offspring O blood type as long both parents are at least heterozygous for this h antigen.   

           The last statistics class I took was AP Stats in my senior year of high school. The AP credit I entered UMass with satisfied my biology major statistics requirement. However, statistics have come up in many of the other classes I have taken at UMass. I remember my high school teacher saying there were two categories of statistics, which were exploratory and inferential. Exploratory statistics was for describing variables, and included things like mean, median, mode, variance, and standard deviation. Inferential statistics was for finding differences or relationships between variables, and involved things like t-tests and chi-square. I remember t-tests and chi-square involved p values. I’m pretty sure p values represent the probability of getting whatever results you observed if the null hypothesis is true, with the null hypothesis being that there is no difference or relationship among whatever variables you’re testing. The conventional p value is 0.05, representing a 95% confidence that you can reject the null. However, in my Genomics and Bioinformatics class that I am taking this semester, my professor made the distinction between statistical significance and biological significance by explaining that some results may not conform to the 0.05 p value, but that does not necessarily mean they should be disregarded, because the 0.05 p value is only convention and does not represent some mathematical absolute. She said that depending on the research question, the 0.05 p value may not be valuable. I also remember there are type one and type two errors that can come up related to the null hypothesis. One of the errors involves rejecting the null when the null is true, and the other involves accepting the null when the null is false, but I don’t remember which is which. 

Outside of my studies, I enjoy working out as I believe an individual’s health is crucial. During the winter here in New England, I love to take road trips to different mountains and ski. In the spring and summer, you will usually find me hiking, biking or kayaking. I do try and spend as much time outside during these few months, as we only have a limited time to enjoy the outdoors with our terribly cold weather, of course. If I do have the chance to join a research lab this summer, being able to hike the Alps and cruise along Lake Constance is definitely on my list! Alongside these activities, I have a passion for photography. Coming from a family of travelers, I’ve learned to embrace culture and language. I am more than grateful to be fluent in Arabic and beginner in German, however ideally, I would like to improve my German in which I think surrounding myself with locals will help. I am available beginning 20 May and am willing to stay until 10 August, and would love the opportunity to work alongside prestigious research faculty at the University of Konstanz. 

When comparing DNA sequence of species, scientists understand better the evolutionary relationships that they could not find simply by looking at morphology. Evidence of DNA is changing and taxonomy is helping them fix the classification of species evolving from common ancestor. Ever since Charles Sibley introduced the DNA-DNA hybridization, DNA efficiency becomes more accurate for classification. He took a egg white protein to analyze its enzyme using this technique. Today, this technique is used by numbers of scientists to improve the use of taxonomy.