Drafts

Fatty acids are central molecules in lipid metabolism. They carry most of the energy in a triacylglycerol and oxidation of them releases energy. The oxidation of a fatty acid is a five-part process that starts in the cytoplasm and ends in the mitochondria: (1) acyl-CoA formation, (2) acyl-CoA transport, (3) beta-oxidation, (4) citric acid cycle, and (5) oxidative phosphorylation. While the last citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation steps are the same as in slow respiration, the other three steps are unique to fatty acid oxidation. Acyl-CoA is formed in the cytoplasm by acyl-CoA synthesis, which requires two ATP. The acyl-CoA is then transported into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation. This transportation is carried out by the carnitine acyltransferase, and once inside, the acyl-CoA cannot be transported out. Beta-oxidation involved sequential cycles of four reactions where electrons are transferred to FAD and NAD+ and carbons are removed as acetyl-CoA, a two-carbon molecule. These four reactions continue to cycle until the whole fatty acid chain is oxidized, two carbons at a time. One thing to note is that the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids requires additional enzymes and varies based on the position of the double bonds. Fatty acids with double bonds are less reduced than saturated fatty acids and therefore yield fewer ATP per carbon.

If I had a friend that seems to have depression symptoms I could recommend trying behavior therapy. Behavior therapy works to increase the number of positive reinforcers in a person's life. This therapy often goes in hand with the behavior theory which is the idea that life stressors decrease positive reinforcers in someone's life. For example, I could suggest that my friend gets out of the house and hangs out with her friends. This may be a positive reinforcement and may help her "get out of bed in the morning." Although, in the grand scheme of things this may not seem like a permanent or extremely helpful solution, as a friend it is something that I would feel comfortable suggesting.

Golden rice is a genetically modified form of rice containing large amounts of orange plant pigment, betacarotene. Betacarotene is an essential pigment that is converted into Vitamin A. Vitamin A is not only important for both our vision and immune system, but vitamin A is essential in keeping many of our organs working properly. This vitamin acts as an antioxidant fighting off cell damage to keep many of our systems working. Golden rice is an example of a GMO food as it has been genetically modified to contain this pigment in order to assist countries with high vitamin A deficiency diseases. Countries with high vitamin A deficiency  include; India, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and the Philippines. Although many people have a negative outlook on the use of GMOs on food, researchers have been able to create this rice to help those individuals with intake of this vitamin. 

The reason why the liver must process the material is because triacylglycerol’s hydrophobic nature makes it difficult to transport and store in the body. Animals attempt to solubilize these molecules through the biosynthesis and distribution of lipoproteins. Lipoproteins come in different types that vary in the percent and type of lipids and proteins that compose it. Lipoproteins have a phospholipid membrane with cholesterol and proteins embedded in it, and inside, they carry cholesterol esters and/or triacylglycerols. Triacylglycerols are then stored in adipose cells, or adipocytes, which are the location of fat storage in animals. Triacylglycerol synthesis is known as lipogenesis and is the creation of triacylglycerol from glycerol and three fatty acids. It occurs in the liver and adipose cells. On the other hand, triacylglycerol degradation is known as lipolysis and is the breakdown of triacylglycerol to glycerol and three fatty acids. It occurs only in adipose cells and involves three enzymes in the process. The fatty acid products then exit the cells and bind to albumin in the blood.

Magnetic fields feel forces when a charge is present. When the charges are moving, the magnetic field exerts a force. The direction of the magnetic force is determined by the direction which the charge is moving and will always be perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B, and is proportional to q, v, and B. Magnetic fields consist of both magnitude and direction like vectors. This can be seen by the right-hand rule when a wire carrying a current is the model. If we rap our hands around the wire, the curled fingers show the direction of the field while the thumb shows the direction of the current. The magnitude then measured by probes.

Magnetism accounts for the properties of magnets and their effect on forces and charges, as well as currents, resulting in a magnetic field. Each magnet is made of two magnetic poles that are called the north magnetic pole and the south magnetic pole. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. This is true for all magnets, regardless of their size. The poles are therefore inseparable. Unmagnetized pieces of iron can be induced to become magnetic. This is done when the iron is heated and cooled or tapped between two poles. What occurs on the molecular level is that tiny fragments of the iron align themselves to have one of their poles meeting the unlike pole of the magnetic material. Eventually, the entire material can overall become magnetic.

Scientists conducted an experiment to determine if people would be more likely to accept help with higher levels of oxytocin in their bodies. Some participants were given a nasal oxytocin spray and others were given a placebo. Scientists had found that the participants who received oxytocin were more inclined to accept help from other individuals. Whereas the participants who received the placebo were more aggressive towards the person offering help. There is a difference in intensity of oxytocin in everyone. As shown, people with higher oxytocin levels would be more receptive when people offer them assistance. It also proves that different concentrations of a hormone can have different effects on people.

Lipids are crucial biomolecules in our body. Their main functions are involved in energy storage, membrane structure, and signaling. Because the fatty acid chains are dominant in the structure and are made up of primarily hydrogens and carbons, lipids are significantly nonpolar. Bond between carbons and hydrogens are nonpolar because of their relatively similar electronegativities. The most important interactions that contribute to the properties of a lipid are van der Waals forces. The simplest lipid formed by fatty acids is triacylglycerol, also known as triglyceride. It is a glycerol bonded to three fatty acid chains, and the bonds between the two are formed by dehydration between glycerol hydroxyl groups and fatty acid carboxyl groups. The fatty acid chains are virtually always different. Triacylglycerol transport and storage revolve around the liver and adipocytes, which are the tissue involved in fat metabolism. Material from the digestive system or body cells enter the liver, where biosynthesis of lipoproteins, fatty acids, and cholesterol occur. These synthesized products are then distributed to adipose cells for storage or are distributed to the body cells for energy use.

It's possible that we will be able to create "enhanced" humans through Cas9 genome editing sometime in the near future; however, if I was given the option years from now to genetically modify my child to be taller, I wouldn’t opt for the height-enhancement of my child. A child is their own being, and I think there’s a beauty to the fact that parents cannot decide who or what their child is. It’s not the parents’ place to decide or control how their children will be before they can for themselves. A part of parenthood is about unconditional love for your kid, regardless of if they’re short or tall, and there seems to be something off about engineering your child to be what is considered favorable to you or to the world. A purposeful height-enhancement may damage a child’s view of their parents’ love. If a child knew that some part of them was pre-decided by their parents, it may convince them that their parents only love them because they decided what kind of child they wanted beforehand. Additionally, there is a chance that the genes altered to enhance their height were pleiotropic, which would mean we may have altered other phenotypes that would have been beneficial to the child.

    Cortisol is a steroid hormone that regulates metabolism, immune response and stress.  Children who grew up in a calm environment have a moderate level of cortisol. While children who are experiencing a stressful childhood would have higher levels of cortisol. A more depressive childhood can result in lower levels of cortisol. Higher and lower levels of cortisol can have an impact on cognitive function. High levels follow a patterned release of cortisol which is influenced by the environment. When an individual finds themselves in a stressful situation a system called “fight or flight” would be initiated. Which would cause cortisol to be released and with constant release of cortisol it would affect cognitive function and health problems in the future.