Drafts

Apoptosis can be activated through two pathways: intrinsic and extrinsic. When the cell is under stress, intracellular signals are released from the mitochondria, activating the intrinsic pathway. The extrinsic pathway's activation relies on ligands binding to extracellular death receptors. In the intrinsic pathway, second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (SMACs) proteins are released into the cytosol and bind to proteins that inhibit apoptosis (IAPs), which inhibits them. Caspases can then be activated and apoptosis can proceed. Cytochrome c is also released from the mitochondria and binds to apoptotic protease activating factor 1 (APAF-1) and procaspase 9 to form the apoptosome, which subsequently activates caspase 3. The extrinsic pathway can be activated through TNF as well as Fas signaling, two pathways that activate transcription factors as well as caspases involved in the inflammatory response and apoptosis.

A french fry follows a certain track to be digested. The french fry starts in the mouth when the person eats the fry. The teeth digest the french fry by cutting it into smaller pieces. The saliva is also working to break down the starches in the fry. In the esophagus, peristalsis is used to push the fry down to the stomach. In the stomach, the muscles churn the fry and mix the fry with pepsin and hydrochloric acid and make it into a liquid. The small intestine then mixes the french fry with enzymes and bile. The large intestine is where the leftover water is absorbed. Then finally comes the rectum and anus where the french fry is able to leave the body.

In this study it was found that when one consumes alcohol there is a receptor that is blocked in the brain that is used to form memories. That receptor is blocked for a certain amount of time which is why that person is incapable of making memories when they drink. A somatic intervention was used. Which means that something was changed and a behavior was observed. In this case, a chemical was used that was found in alcohol on animals. That chemical blocked the receptors and the animals were unable to form any memories. The only reason it worked was because alcohol could cross the blood brain barrier. The blood brain barrier is the barrier around the blood vessels in the brain which keep out the toxins in the blood from interfering with the neurons. Ethanol was able to cross the blood brain barrier and with that, affecting the hippocampus. The hippocampus is responsible for making memories. Another important part in making memories is the long term potentiation (LTP). It is when two neurons join together at the synapses and when it joins it become more vulnerable to stimuli. Which is how that memory is formed and maintained.

The difference between something that is cooked, and raw depends on the state of the protein. When something is cooked, proteins inside the cell are denatured from the proteins. Heat is a major component used to denature proteins to change the physical state of a compound. Because heat is usually released into the environment, it is almost impossible to renature a cell because the lost heat cannot be absorbed again. However, UC Irvine found a new approach to renature a protein to reverse the direction of the physical state. Urea, a chemical used for renaturation is a compound found in livers, that are soluble and produce ammonia to deaminate amino acids in the body. It is a waste product, but the characteristics of urea allows the denatured protein to renature.

I walked from the front entrance of Morril 3 down the stair case that was slightly left and across the street. Once on the sidewalk, I turned right. After taking 8 steps, I veered left and walked down the hill towards a tree. I positioned myself facing the side of the tree that was labled "black oak". Then I took a step to my left and squatted down about six inches from the tree. Keeping my back at a 90 degree angle to the ground, I took a picture of the moss holding my camera tilted downward at about a 45 degree angle. Then I stood back up and took half a step to my right. Still about 6 inches away, I took a picture of the tree with the left edge of the "black oak" sign lining up with middle of the camera screen and vertically centered. Then I squatted back down and took a close up picture of the brightest section of moss right in front of me. I took this picture with the camera about 1 inch away from the tree. 

The electromagnetic spectrum represents the range of frequencies of electromagnetic frequencies with the corresponding wavelengths. The order in increasing frequency is radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray. Radio waves capture waves by nearby radio stations to produce tunes through radio speakers. Microwaves are slightly higher in wave frequency and are emitted in kitchen microwaves for heating purposes. Waves that capture heat from either objects or animals can be seen with infrared. The visible waves are the only waves humans are able to see with the naked eye, which includes all the lights and colors produced. Ultraviolet waves are strictly emitted from the sun and can cause sunburns and tans with prolonged exposure. Lastly, x-rays and gamma rays are used in the medical field and for security purposes to take scans of the body or objects. X-rays consist of x-rays of teeth and scanning images of baggages at the airport. On the other hand, gamma rays are more powerful and hence more dangerous so they are highly regulated for precaution. Gamma rays are used to treat cancer for certain patients to kill cancerous cells in the body. The electromagnetic spectrum explains what humans visualize in the universe and further explain images taken and studied by machines that measure the range of waves.

The aim of the paper is to investigate the characteristics of Porifera and Ctenophores in order to determine their phylogeny. Characteristics such as physiology, morphology and molecular genetics of these organisms is analyzed to map evolutionary relationships. Because these groups have not been studied extensively, making these relationships presents some difficulty. Studying them from the fossil record is a challenge because they are poorly preserved. Ctenophores are gelatinous and fragile, which makes them harder to collect. The wide diversity of porifera and ctenophores also makes them difficult to characterize. For example, ctenophores are found throughout the ocean from pole to pole. Though even with more information collected on the two species, they are often interpreted in the context of bilateria, which leads them to be labeled as less complex than they actually are. Despite the seemingly simple morphology of sponges, they have a similar genetic inventory to more complex animals. Even though the physiology of sponges is different, it carries out the same tasks and is just as complex. 

Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are molecules with a carbon center bound to a hydrogen, amino group, carboxyl group, and a "R" group. The R group vareis between amino acids. The chemistry of the functional groups is what determines the properties of ionization. Some R groups are ionizable, while others are not. Some R groups are polar and uncharged, nonpolar, or charged. In a high pH environment, the common functional groups are usually deprotonated, which means the amino group is neutral and the carboxyl group has a negative charge. On the other hand, in a low pH environment, the common functional groups are usually protonated, meaning the amino group has a positive charge and the carboxyl group is neutral. However, at the neutral physiological pH, the amino group is usually protonated while the carboxyl group is deprotonated. This is how pH affects the surface charge of a protein. In low pH or acidic environments, the surface charge is more positive since the functional groups are protonated. In high pH or basic environments, the surface charge is more negative since since the functional groups of the amino acid are deprotonated. Some R groups ionize, meaning they have a conjugate acid and base form. This means that some amino acids have three ionizable groups instead of just two. This can be determined through titration, which is when a strong base is added to an acid. At a low pH, all the groups are protonated. As base is added and the pH increases, groups begin to deprotonate. Inflection points are visible, which are when enough base is added to react with half of the acid. Then at the equivalence point, enough base has been added to completely deprotonate the acid. Based on how many inflection and equivalence points there are, one can determine the number of ionizable groups present and determine the identity of the amino acid present in solution. 

TNF-related apoptotic-inducing ligand (TRAIL), a naturally-occurring cytokine, assists in initiating the apoptotic process. TRAIL may be useful as a cancer therapy due to its death receptor binding properties for DR4 and DR5. This must be taken into account when engineering targeted treatments so normal, healthy tissue is not targeted and subsequently destroyed. TRAIL also binds to decoy apoptotic receptors such as DCR1 and DCR2, allowing for the activation of the inflammatory response and further leading the cell to apoptosis via transcription of specific genes. TRAIL may serve as part of a possible targeted treatment for pancreatic adenocarcinoma. If the protein can be transported to only cancerous cells via liposome and binding to extracellular cancer antigens, it may be able to assist in the design of an effective, holistic treatment for the patient.

Today I went to the emergency room with my friend. They have been sick for quite some time, throwing up and nausea at random times throughout the day. Over the past few days they stomach has physically started hurting and their vomiting has gotten way worse. So here I am in the emergency room and hospitals just seem so dirty. I feel like hospitals are supposed to be clean and sterile but hospitals are just the breeding grounds for the worst kinds of viruses and bacteria. Everyone who is comes here and leaves and micro organism on them here in the hospital after they leave. Superbugs have been something that have started appearing in recent years. Bacteria that have many drug resistant properties. Hospitals are responsible for inadvertently creating many of these superbugs. The doctors over prescribe antibiotics and then the bacteria continue to live and now have a gene that makes them resistant. Now that sick person comes back to the hospital or has yet to leave and leaves behind the bacteria that is now resistant to drugs. I just really don’t like being in hospitals as they seem like these bacteria and antibiotic resistant bacteria are lingering around each and every corner.