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The 50 µL of extracted DNA in T10E1 was divided evenly between two tubes, and one was treated with 2 µL of RNase A while the other had 2 µL of sterile water added. Both were incubated for 30 minutes at 37°C before being analyzed by a NanoDrop spectrophotometer. The genomic DNA was also measured via agarose gel electrophoresis. A 50-mL tube of 0.9% agarose containing SYBR Safe was taken from a 65°C water bath, poured into a mold, and set aside to set. A ½ dilution of both the treated and untreated genomic DNA samples were created by combining 10 µL of the DNA stock solutions and 10 µL of dilution buffer. The four loading samples to be run in the gel (genomic DNA treated with RNase, ½ dilution of genomic DNA treated with RNase, untreated genomic DNA, and ½ dilution of untreated genomic DNA) were created by combining 10 µL of each DNA stock solution, 5 µL of loading dye, and 9 µL of water. The gel was loaded with 2.5 µL of DNA ladder in the first lane, 5 µL of DNA ladder in the second lane, and 5 µL of each of the four loading samples in the next four lanes, and the gel was run at 100V for 30 minutes. The gel was visualized via blue light.

Vaccines work in a complex way. The human immune system is broken into two parts, the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune system is made up of components such as skin, mucus, and macrophages that engulf cells to destroy them. The innate immune system is something that all humans have. Vaccines work with the adaptive immune system. This part of the immune system can remember antigens by producing antibodies that bind to them. Vaccines expose the adaptive immune system to weakened or dead antigens. The adaptive immune system builds antibodies against the weakened or dead antigen so that when a live version of that antigen invades the body an immune response can be triggered immediately. Without the adaptive immune system the innate immune system would be overwhelmed and the host human would experience symptoms of disease.

Vaccines work in a very complex way. The human immune system is broken into two parts, the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune system is made up of components like skin, mucus, and macrophages that engulf cells to destroy them. The innate immune system is something that all humans have. Vaccines work with the adaptive immune system. This part of the immune system can remember antigens by producing antibodies that bind to them. Vaccines expose the adaptive immune system to weakened or dead antigens. The adaptive immune system builds antibodies against the weakened or dead antigen so that when a live version of that antigen invades the body an immune response can be triggered immediately. Without the adaptive immune system the innate immune system would be overwhelmed and the host human would experience symptoms of disease.

A 5 cm segment of B. distachyon leaf was ground up into a powder by a Verder ball grinder after being frozen in liquid nitrogen. 600 µL of DNA extraction buffer (100 mM sodium chloride, 50 mM Tris, 25 mM ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA), 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 10 mM beta-mercaptoethanol) was then added and mixed to break up the cells and prevent DNA degradation. The tube was incubated in a 65°C hot block for 10 minutes then iced. Next, 250 µL of 5M potassium acetate was added and mixed, and the tube was incubated on ice for 20 minutes for the carbohydrate and proteins to precipitate. The tube was centrifuged at maximum speed for 10 minutes, and the supernatant containing the DNA was transferred into a new tube containing 600 µL of 100% isopropanol. This solution was mixed, and the DNA was allowed to precipitate before centrifuging the tube at maximum speed for 15 minutes. The supernatant was removed, and the pellet containing the extracted DNA was rinsed with 300 µL of 70% ethanol and centrifuged for another 10 minutes. The liquid was pipetted out, and the remaining ethanol was allowed to dry completely. Lastly, the tube had 50 µL of T10E1 (10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA) added to it, which preserves the DNA, and was incubated at 65°C for 10 minutes. The pellet was mixed into the solution by pipetting up and down.

In the biology field, mutualism is an interaction between two or more species in the same environment that benefit from one another. The species depend on each other for increased fitness and survival. On the UMass Amherst campus, the diverse wildlife provides opportunities for mutualism to occur within several species. Within the campus pond and its surroundings, resides year long habitats of numerous animals and plants.

I observed and photographed a mutualistic relationship between the campus pond and cattail plants that grow along the perimeter of the pond. Cattails appear as brown sausages on a yellow and brown stick attached to the upper half of the plant. The cattails grow well near the swampy area of the pond because they need a constant supply of water in its roots and exposure to sunlight to perform photosynthesis. Their roots in the water provide shelter for small fish underwater in ponds and the stems are a source of nesting materials for small animals to occupy.

A series of methods describes how the student took the images of the cattail and later how, another student from the class followed the instructions. The subsequent student’s aim was to replicate the procedures in hopes of obtaining the same results.  Critical factors were considered carefully, specifically time of day, weather, softwares, and equipment in order to perform the activity.

Off the coast of Belize, there is a large sinkhole known as the Great Blue Hole. Explorers recently reached the bottom of this sinkhole and made some interesting discoveries. They found new mineral icicles, dead mollusks, and plastic bottles. To make these discoveries, the scientists used sound waves to get a feel for sizes and shapes of objects in this sinkhole. With their discovery of multiple plastic bottles, it is safe to assume that plastic is a big concern for the planet. Their findings are being featured in an upcoming documentary that will be released in the spring.

The overall sizes of each figure are different: Figure 1 is 1200 pixels while Figure 2 is approximately 600 pixels greater. Despite consistent orientation of panels across both figures, the dimensions of each panel differ. Letter labels are lowercase in Figure 1 and uppercase in Figure 2. The white backgrounds behind each letter also vary in size between the two figures and are smaller in Figure 1 than in Figure 2. In Figure 1, letter labels are centered within their respective white backgrounds whereas in Figure 2, the letter labels are not centered. The white backgrounds themselves also differ in shape across both figures. In Figure 1, the white backgrounds are square and in Figure 2, the white backgrounds are rectangular. Figure 2 also has green borders around each white square letter label, an element Figure 1 does not have. Image quality differs between the two figures with clearer images in Figure 1 than in Figure 2. The images in Figure 1 also take up the majority of the frame whereas in Figure 2, there is more background space in the images.

Multiple sclerosis is a neural autoimmune disorder, which causes the body to not recognize its own myelin sheath and attacks it. Myelin wraps around the axons in the spinal cord and brain. Myelin sheath is useful for sending messages passively from one axon to another. The use of myelin sheaths speeds up the process, which allows for quicker messages being sent. Symptoms of multiple sclerosis include fatigue, vision impairment and a loss of coordination. Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (dTMS) uses a H-shaped magnetic coil to deliver an electric stimulation to the brain nerves. The brain nerves that are targeted are in the prefrontal cortex and primary motor cortex. Which causes the neurons to release neurotransmitters and allows for regulation.

The backgrounds of Panel B in both figures differ. In Panel B of Figure 1, the individual Duck is standing on ice. In Figure 2, the individual Duck is standing on muddy terrain. The Duck in Figure 1 is oriented towards the camera whereas the Duck in Figure 2 is oriented away. In Figure 1, the Duck is set more into the foreground of the panel than the Duck in Figure 2. The length and width of Panel B in Figure 1 is longer than those of Panel B in Figure 2.