Drafts

The mechanism controlling this interaction is most likely facilitation. Figure 3 shows that when there is less Aspen, Fir die significantly more.  One reason may be due to the Fir being able to take over much faster than they would be able to in the normal successional cycle. If they are taking over faster, and more often then the case of fires is going to occur more. With more fires the cycle will begin again after both species get burnt down. Aspen will then arrive first, and if re-thinned will get taken over by Fir again very quickly resulting in more frequent fires and a higher mortality rate for Fir. The Aspen morality rate does not increase by a lot because by the time the fire occurs because the plot is already overtaken by Fir. 

Certain examples would suggest Aristotle’s idea of gravity to be true, such as dropping an rock and a leaf at the same time. The rock will fall to the ground faster. However, Italian scientist Galileo had his suspicions about the veracity of this experiment and decided to put it to the test. He experimented by rolling balls of different masses down sloped planes and found that it was possible to have two balls of different masses reach the bottom of the plane at the same time. This discovery suggested that the rate of acceleration to the earth is universal, a novel concept that contradicted Aristotle’s theory of gravity. 

Physicist Isaac Newton built off of this idea, shortly after Galileo, and made a great leap in the theory. He made a proposition in 1687 that had tremendous success in predicting the strength of gravity. Isaac believed that the force of gravity that causes a ball thrown into the air to retreat back to the earth was the same force that caused the planets to orbit around the sun. His Law of Universal Gravitation says that a particle attracts every other particle in the universe. The degree of this attraction is proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.  It took another 250 years before this a new theory showed this one to be incorrect, and this is because for most practical purposes this theory is “correct.” Newtonian gravity, in combination with Newtonian motion, explains the orbit of the planets around the sun, the orbits of the moons around the planets, gravity as we see experience it here on earth, and the ocean tides. Whenever astronomical measurements seemed to be in discordance with Newtonian gravity, it was ultimately found that the measurements were for some reason incorrect. One example is the course of Uranus rotating about the sun. Measurements of it’s orbit appeared to violate Newtonian gravity. However, scientists speculated that some undiscovered planet could possibly be pulling on Uranus and altering it’s orbit and a man named U.J.J. Le Verrier decided to put this theory to the test and calculated where this mysterious planet may be based on Newton’s laws of gravity and motion. When he trained his telescope to aim at that spot, there the planet (Neptune) was, exactly where Newton’s Laws said it should be.

Sexual selection, is the selection of certain traits based on sexual preference by one of the sexes. This is typically seen as female choice driving the evolution of ornate plumage and elaborate songs used by males during courtship. Sexually selected traits are often very costly for males and can lower survorship, however they increase fitness. Traits can be costly due to the energy required to have them, or they can attract predators. Brightly colored feathers can be a sexually selected trait that lowers survivorship because it makes the bird more peceptible to preadators. However, colorful wings increases fitness because females are attracted to colorful wings so the male is more likely to attract mates and therefore produce more offspring. In some cases, sexual selection can result in "run-away" sexual selection in which the males evolve very elaborate forms of ornamentation that keep evolving as female preference evolves to prefer more elaborate traits. 

  In the lab, 0.064 g sodium hydroxide and 0.200g 2-naphthol  were added to a flask. 3mL ethanol was then added to the flask. Then the solution was refluxed for 25 minutes and cooled for 3 minutes. 0.2mL N-butyl iodide was added to the solution and the solution was refluxed for one hour. Around the 10 minute left point in the reflux, 25 mL water was cooled in an ice bath. The reaction mixture was poured over 10 g of ice in a beaker and stirred until 95% of the ice had melted. The product was then collected via suction filtration. The product was rinsed with ice-cold water and dried under suction for 25 minutes. The melting point of the product was then taken. To analyze the polarity of the product, thin layer chromatography (TLC) was performed. A small amount of product was dissolved in ethyl acetate and a small amount of 2-naphthol was also dissolved in ethyl acetate. Then three TLC plates were prepared with three spots A, B and C from left to right (A was the 2-naphthol solution, B was 50% 2-naphthol solution and 50% product solution, and C was the product solution). One plate was run in 75:25 hexanes:EtOAc solution; one plate was run in 25:75 hexanes:EtOAc solution; and the third plate was run in 60:40 hexanes:EtOAc solution.

The first stage to oxidative phosophorlation is called the Electron transport chain (ETC). During this stage, reduced electron carriers in the form of NADH and FADH2 enter the complexes of ETC. Complex 1 strips NADH of its electrons and pumps them to coenzyme Q. In addition to this complex 1 will pump protons to the intermembrane area. Complex 2 strips FADH2 of its electrons and donates them to coenzyme Q as well. However, Complex 2 does NOT pump protons. Coenzyme Q will then donate the electrons it recieves to complex 3, which pumps more protons to the intermembrane space. In turn, complex 3 donates electrons to Cytochrome C, a water soluable protein which can move around the intermembrane space. Cytochrome C transports electrons to Complex 4. Complex 4 pumps protons to the intermembrane space as well, and donates its electrons to the final electron reciever, oxygen. This process produces H2O. It is importan for these complex to pump protons to the intermembrane space to set up a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to power the last part of oxidative phosophorylation, ATP synathse. Protons from the intermembrane space essentially store energy and release it by moving through the gradiant and back into the mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthase. For every 3 protons which pass through the protein, 1 ATP is created.

The cycohexanol was reacted using heat and a strong acid and the alkene was obtained in 57% yield. The distillate range was 68°C-70°C, suggesting that the compound was relatively impure since the range was lower than expected. When either bromine or KMnO4 were added to the cyclohexene product it did not mix so it remained clear, but in the cyclohexane product they did mix and turned a reddish brown color in the case of the bromine and a purplish color in the case of the KMnO4, which were the expected results. The Gas chromatography suggested that the mixture was around 76% cyclohexene, which suggested that the actual yield was about 0.014 mol, hence the theoretical yield of 57%. The resulting substance was relatively impure.

. After letting the participant observe the second card, he went down the line of 7 staged people and asked them which line on the card matched the original card. They told their answer out loud for the rest of the participants to hear. Each participant said the obviously correct answer, including the newest participant. He then repeated this task 3 times. However, on the third trial, the 7 staged participants said the same obviously incorrect answer. This was to test whether the newest participant would say the correct answer, or follow their peers and say the wrong answer despite it being obviously incorrect. As a result, Asch found that at 75% of the participants said the incorrect answer with the rest of the group at least one time throughout the trials. This experiments proved that people can depend on conformity in group settings, seeing as the participant said the incorrect answer when the rest of the 7 group members said it.  It is interesting to see how someone’s answer can be so greatly affected by their group members even when the correct answer is obvious. When the other participants said the incorrect answer, the participant must have questioned their own thoughts or were too nervous to go against the norm. 

Conformity refers to the idea of humans following the actions or behaviors of a group of people that they familiarize themselves with. This concept is most relevant to young teenagers who are trying to figure out their identity or personality as they may be prone to following the actions of their peers in order to fit in. These conforming actions may disagree with one’s true morals or beliefs due to the fear of being different. Solomon Asch’s experiments with conformity help to determine how powerful the idea of conformity is on personality traits in adolescents. His experiments focused on perceptual conformity, a type of conformity that deals with the perception of senses such as taste, touch, and smell. During one of his experiments he had a volunteer sit down next to 7 other staged participants. He then gave each participant the same card and ask them to remember the length of the line on the given card. After he let the participants observe the first card, he took it away and gave them a new card with three lines of differing lengths. One of the lines on the card was clearly the same length as the line on the previous control card. 

Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are two glycolytic pathways involving the degradation and synthesis of pyruvate from glucose. While these reactions seem like the opposite of each other, gluconeogenesis actually bypasses three pathways involved in glycolysis. The three irreversible reactions must be bypassed due to their change in free energy. The reactions using the enzymes hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase yield a large negative change in free energy making the reaction impossible to reverse. The changes in free energy for the respective pathways are -33 kJ/mol, -22.2 kJ/mol and -33.2 kJ/mol. When a reaction has a change in free energy that is 0 or close to 0, it is easy to reverse and therefore works in the process of gluconeogenesis. However, if the reverse reaction for glycolysis is necessary, the cell uses another pathways and another enzyme to bypass the irreversible change in free energy. Gluconeogenesis is an anabolic pathway because it creates complex molecules from simple molecules. Prior to coupling, the pathway is endergonic and cannot be reversed. 

Cells have control of where DNA replication is initiated as well how many times it is initiated. ORC (origin replication complex) initially binds to the origin of replication on the DNA and causes replication to go off in two directions. Once two replication complexes meet up in the middle, they finish their replication and dissociate. For our purposes we will assume that ORC is bound to DNA all the time. ORC binds, recruits Cdc6 (an ATPase), which then recruits other complexes, including helicase(MCM). Cdt1 brings helicase to the ORC. In S-phase, CDK phosphorylates the ORC, cdc6 and helicase. This effectively prevents the formation of the preRC (pre replication complex). This ensures that the DNA is only replicated once during one round of the cell cycle. PreRC assembly is known as origin licensing. When Rb lets go of E2F, the preRC is assembled. Phosphorylation of ORC stop cdc6 from binding, phosphorylation of cdc6 degrades it, phosphorylation of helicase cause exporitin to bind it and take it out of the nucleus. CDK is responsible for replication initiation as well as ensuring replication only happens once.