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Leaf miners are a type of insect that eat the mesophyll layer of the leaf. The elm leafminer's common name is a sawfly. The adult female sawfly lays eggs on the bottom side of the leaf. These eggs hatch and the larvae burrow through the mesophyll layer of the leaf creating tracts as they eat. The leaf eventually falls to the grown in the fall, or the leaf is killed by excessive leafmining and falls to the ground. Once the leaf is on the grownd, the larvae crawl out and burrow about one inch under the top soil. The larvae form a cacoon and wait out the winter underground. In the spring the larvae hatch from the cacoon and dig their way out of the soil to emerge as an adult sawfly. The adult saw fly lays more eggs and the life cycle continues.

The majority of damage done by the leafminer is asthetic;the overall damage to the leaf is not life threatening ot the tree, but the leaves can die if too much of the mesophyll is eaten. There are insectasides available for the soil, to kill the sawfly cacoons, or for the leaves of the tree, to kill the eggs. Insectasides are expensive and time consuming. Therefore finding trees that are less likely to be attacked by sawflies is the best solution to this problem. 

Research has shown that cultivated cranberries react to warmer temperatures by flowering earlier; just as wild flowers do. This has critical implications to both cultivators and symbiotic species that utilize cranberries in Massachusetts. Cultivators face challenges by the earlier flowering of cranberries. The effect of phenology alteration due to climate change is also important when considering the relationship between pollinators and plants. Using controlled and well recorded cranberry bogs in Massachusetts can help understand the processes of earlier flowering times throughout the world.

Today is Halloween, which means dining halls at the University of Massachusetts - Amherst will be preparing for their annual fresh lobster special. Fresh lobsters must be prepared in a particular way. Seafood should always be prepared with extra care because shellfish is a common allergen to the public. One topic that is talked about around lobsters is their innate ability to be immortal. Biological immortality in lobsters is expressed through the telomerase gene. When DNA is replicated, we lose DNA at the ends of our chromosomes (telomeres). Studies have linked the shortage of telomeres with aging. Telomerase is an enzyme that reduces the loss of telomeres. 

The endoplasmic reticulum is an important organelle that makes up 10% of the cell's volume. The endoplasmic reticulum, or ER, surounds the nucleus and spreads through out the cell. There are two types of ER: smooth and rough. The smooth ER contains no ribosomes on its membrane, hence the name "smooth". This smooth structure is because the main purpose of the smooth ER is to synthesize lipids and decrease toxicity of the cell. In contrast the rough ER has ribosomes scattered along the membrane because the main purpose of the rough ER is to synthesize, process, and export protiens. In terms of the relationship of the ER to ribosomes, a ribosome will recgonize a translation initation sequence of an mRNA and begin synthesizing the protein. This complex will then bind a translocon located on the membrane of the ER. This channel protein will direct the newly synthesized protein into the lumen of the ER. The protein is then processed and can possibly be retained in the lumen, secreted into the cytoplasm, or released in a vesicle. 

Though modern methods for introducing transgenes into an organism are diverse, there are two historically important procedures that were the progenitors of transgenic organisms. Palmiter and Brinster were the first to introduce foreign genetic material to an organism. They added the gene for human growth hormone (HGH) to a mouse zygote at the point where the haploid genomes are fusing to cause random incorporation of the transgene into the host genome. In addition to the transgene payload, Palmiter and Brinster added a promoter in front of the transgene in order to get expression in the transformed mice. Following this historical achievement came the knock-in engineering in embryonic stem (ES) cells developed by Capecchi, Martin, and Smithies. This method involved in vitro transformation of ES cells as opposed to direct zygotic injection. They removed the promoter from the transgene, added arms of homology and a neomycin resistance gene. The promoter is unnecessary as the arms of homology will target the transgene to an already active promoter in a pre-existing gene. The transgenes are then added to electroporated ES cells in order to allow the transgene payload to enter the ES cells. The cells that take up the transgene and undergo a double-stranded (DS) break that matches the transgene’s arms of homology get transformed. Then, the antibiotic neomycin is added to the cultured cells to select for the cells that were transformed. These transformed cells are injected into a mouse blastocyst in order to express the transgene in the adult organism.

Genomic analysis is the identification, comparison of genetic features and their expression through the use of techniques such as DNA sequencing and bioinformatics. Genomic analysis is generally considered to be divided into two categories; structural genomics which identifies certain genomic structures in the genome and functional genomic analysis which analyses the expression of genes and their interactions often also called transcriptomes. Genomic analysis was made available through the prevalence and availability of gene sequencing. While the Human Genome Project sequenced the entire human genome most of the genomic analysis would not be possible without the further accessibility of sequencing using other techniques such as next-gen sequencing and whole-genome sequencing that does not depend on the isolation of cells in order to sequence the genes. Because these data that are generated from sequencing are generally put in online databases, these data are both available and able to be used for purposes that were not intended by the researchers who have originally read the sequence. The data set contains so many different information that a single sequencing can be the basis of several papers. Because of this, there is a data analysis bottleneck where there is so much data that needs to be analyzed but there is not enough time or computing power to analyze the entire genome has been a problem in the field.

Palaces were large scale structures commissioned by elites who had some control over the people living on Crete. The elites used 3 strategies to get the Minoan masses to accept their rule. First, benefits included being a part of a group with an impressive and immense structure used for rituals and gatherings and fortifications to towns for protection (Minoans of). Second and third, according to archaeologists, previous religious sites were replaced by the palaces or ‘state’ shrines, which implies the elites may have coerced people into abandoning their previous beliefs and pushed people to adopt a new ideology. These state shrines or palaces were large building complexes with multiple floors and specialized rooms. The elites that lived here enjoyed lavish lifestyles; bathrooms with wooden seats and possible flushing apparatuses leading to the main drainage system (First Aegean). In lower rooms, large ceramic jars indicate palaces were storage facilities used for storing, redistributing, and trading wine and olive oil (Minoans of). Evidence also shows the Minoans were in contact with Egypt, exchanging their cloth, timber, and foodstuffs, for copper, tin, gold, silver, and hippopotamus ivory (Minoans of).