Drafts

The lack of neuron staining techniques prior to the Nissl stain and the Golgi stain. Though Nissl’s technique came first, it only revealed neurons’ endoplasmic reticulum and parts of the cell body. It was only until Camillo Golgi developed his staining method, first known as the “black reaction”, that neurons as a whole were revealed. This was a groundbreaking technique that led to decade long debates about the nature of the nervous system, especially as to whether neurons were contiguous or separate. Since then, staining techniques have evolved to allow imaging of anything from axonal networks to individual neuropeptides. The Weigert-Weil stain enables us to visualise the myelin sheath of axons, giving us the opportunity to observe how connections are established throughout the brain. Modern techniques like in-situ hybridization (ISH) allow us to see which genes are expressed in a sample of neurons. The first step in ISH involves binding a labelled mRNA strand complementary to the mRNA produced by the gene of interest. The second step involves the introduction of a primary antibody with a variable region keyed to the mRNA label binds to the mRNA strand. The final step is injection of fluorescently labelled secondary antibodies with variable regions that recognize the species-specific heavy chain of the primary antibodies, and then imaging the cells with the appropriate wavelength of light. This technique allows scientists to know which neurons are expressing the gene of interest. Another modern staining method called immunohistochemistry (IHC) is also an antibody stain that uses fluorescently labelled antibodies to visualise certain molecules. However, as opposed to ISH, IHC reveals the presence of proteins such as neuropeptides, which can also be indicative of neuronal function.

Today I would like to remark at the incredible burst of knowledge that occured in the scientific field with the technological revolution. I learned today that the scientist that discovered tubulin is still alive today. That put in perspective to me that so much of what we currently accept as common knowledge in almost all scientific fields are relatively recent discoveries and theories. The growth of technology and advanced methods of experimenting and researching all sprung up in a short hundred years of human history. What amazes me the most is the ability of the science community to adapt and accept the new findings as they accumulate so quickly. The fact that our classes are making common knowledge of things discovered within 20 years is remarkable to me and speaks volumes about the ability of education. I also now ponder that is this is only the beginning of the technological revolution and realization of what that means for science, how much can the future hold? Are we just on the brink on a never-before-phathomed amount of things there are to learn about life and organisms and evolution? I think the answer to the question can only be yes, and that is exciting and terrifying. 

Phytophagy is the act of consuming plants. This can be done in many ways and evidence of this is all around us. Right here on campus at the University of Massachusetts, phytophagy is present in the form of insects consuming leaves. On a warm sunny day in fall around 4:00pm on a Friday I left the BCRC room in Morrill Science Center III south by taking a right down the hallway. At the end of the hallway I took a left and then a left again through a big heavy door into the stair well that has the walls painted with various themes of science. I walked to the bottom of the stair well and opened the door to a new hallway where I took a left. I went through a set of doors, down a short set of stairs and through the last set of doors finally stepping outside. I walked down the side walk to the left and then went down the first set of stairs on the right. I walked down the short set of stairs and crossed the crosswalk located at the bottom of the stairs. I was sure to look both ways before crossing the street and made sure no cars where coming. Once across the street I walked across the east lawn heading towards the library tower. At the edge of the campus pond there are two granite benches. The bench on the left is located between two trees. The tree on the right in-between the two benches has a small shoot growing from the base f the adult tree. Halfway up this shoot is a leaf that has three large wholes in the center of the leaf almost in a clover shape. It also has two smaller holes towards the apice of the leaf one on each side of the main venation of the leaf. On the left side of the leaf there is a series of holes in what looks like a “cancer ribbon” shape. In my left hand I held the leaf and a ruler on the inches side to show that the leaf is approximately 2 inches long which is approximately 5 centimeters. I held the leaf and measured it with the stem to the left and the apice to the right. I took the picture with my phone.

The leaf I chose to represent phytophagy on campus displayed more characteristics for evidence than others I examined. The exact location of this leaf was 1 foot away from a nearby tree across from Recreational center. I was intentionally searching for fallen leaves, as I predicted they would be easier for insects to eat without having to expend much energy climbing a tree.

The leaf exhibits a dark green color. I predicted the leaf had recently fallen, due to its stiff texture. On the leaf there are various sized holes. The smallest was only some millimeters long while the largest had been approximately 2/10ths of a centimeter. Around the holes are small bumps which are discolored. They are lighter in color than the lear’s entirety, with hints of brown. This does not look like a typical display of leaf decay, so it is highly likely that those areas are where phytophagy occurred. I kept the sample with me in the case it is needed in the future.

Multiparameter flow cytometry has become a standard in diagnosis and prognosis of patients with plasma cell disorders. New technology created a (NFG) or next-generation flow cytometry that measured characteristics of cells to detect minimal residual disease (MRD) in a cost effective way. This method could also be used to detect circulating tumor cells and recent cases has shown its success in detecting multiple myelomas. Paraproteins are a type of protein detected in the bone marrow and other tissues when cancer or other diseases are present. Specifically, when plasma cells begin to make an abnormal protein (monoclonal) this is a sign of myeloma.

Multiparameter flow cytometry is one of the main means of diagnosis of hematologic malignancies. It is a low cost and effective way to find any discrepancies in cells and target malignancies. It works by taking cells and placing them in a fluid stream and analyzing each cell using cytometry. Cytometry is the measurements of a cell through its characteristics such as size and shape. This device is able to use a laser to specifically analyze each cell and characterize if it is normal or abnormal. It can take only a few hours to analyze a sample making it an incredibly effective form of diagnosis.

Jelinek, T, et al. “Current Applications of Multiparameter Flow Cytometry in Plasma Cell Disorders.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 20 Oct. 2017, www.nature.com/articles/bcj201790.

In current neuroscience, we know that neurons carry electrical signals across the synapse both to and from the brain to relay information, Throughout history this was not the case. A doctor to the Roman Gladiators, Galen, believed that because the cerebellum was the firm part of the brain, it was responsible for muscle movement. The cerebrum is the softer part of the brain, so he believed perception of different experiences imprinted on this part of the brain. He was generally right in the sense that the brain does control muscle movement, and the cerebrum is mostly responsible for sensory percention. These ideas evolved over the years to the knowledge we have today, that different sections of the brain have different functions and control different parts of our physical and psychological being.

Why are humans, as a species vunderable to osteoporosis? Why are women even more susceptable to the illness?  These questions can be answered through evolutionary medicine.  Bones begin as cartilage with centers of ossification that allow for the growth of the bone over time.  Eventually, the centers for ossificaiton fuse and the bone stops growing.  Besides infancy, the fastest time for growth occures during adolesence.  The growth rate is direclty related to the amount of IGF released by the pititary gland of the individual.  During pubery for females, the bone density is rapidly being packed onto the bones.  Once puberty ends, females have a significalty higher bone density and mass than males.  This is important for reproduction as the calcium and nutrients of the bones is essential to pregancy and breastfeeding.  During menopause, women have a serious decrease in the amount of estrogen they produce. As a result there is a sudden drop in bone density.  As opposed to men who see a steady decrease in bone density over time, women see a sudden drop in bone density then continue to deterioate at a steady rate from there.  Because of the sudden drop during menopause, women are at a greater risk for osteoporosis than men.  This is an example of antagonistic pleiotrophy.  While levels of estrogen in women during puberty are essential to successful reproduce, they result in deterious consequences later in life.  

The history of neurology is a fragmented one fraught with disagreements and centuries of stagnation. The earliest evidence of brain surgery dates back to prehistoric skulls with the marks of trepanation and subsequent recovery. Ancient Egyptians suggested that the heart was the seat of the soul rather than the brain. After that, the Ancient Greeks discovered the separation between the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS), though opinions were split as to whether the brain matter actually served a purpose in consciousness. Later, in 200BCE, Galen of Ancient Rome discovered cerebrospinal fluid in sheep and concluded that it was this liquid that gave rise to the conscious mind. Records of brain research in the Orient end there for nearly 1700 years, until the Renaissance in the 16th century. Leonardo da Vinci picks up the study of brain anatomy and makes detailed drawings of the brain and its ventricles. Slightly later in the mid 1500s, Andreas Vesalius dissects the bodies of executed prisoners and refutes Galen’s hypothesis that CSF is the seat of consciousness, rather, the solid matter gives rise to the mind. However, in the 1600s, Descartes counters this hypothesis in saying that the mind and brain are separate entities, giving birth to philosophical dualism. But, around the same time, Thomas Willis and Christopher Wren dissect human bodies and come to the same conclusion as Vesalius, the wellspring of the mind is not CSF but brain matter. Many small discoveries over the next centuries resulted in our understanding that nerves communicate via electricity and that different parts of the brain are important for different functions. It was only in the early 1900s that neurons were stained (Camillo Golgi) and then hypothesized to be the individual units of the brain (Santiago Ramón y Cajal). Finally, as we approach the 21st century, research has brought to light the existence of different neuron types, and other classes of brain cells - such as glia - that serve a host of other purposes in maintaining brain function. Though we know much about the anatomy of the brain, we are still in the dark about its generation, possible regeneration, information processing capabilities, and how it gives rise to consciousness.

The microbiome is so extensive in the living body, it is hard to think about life without it. There are so many functions of our microbiome that we don't think of everyday. Some of the functions are obvious, such as assistance in digestion. Other functions include vitamin K digestion and the processes that aids seratonin production. Current research is looking for a link between different autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, and a malfunction in the microbiome. The microbiome of everyone is slightly different, even among identical twins, because of different diets, exersizes, and experiences. The microbiome between an obese and a lean identical twin is very different, and research in mice is used to test if the lean mouse's microbiome can be safely transfered to the obese mouse to help that mouse loose weight. One form of microbiome transfer has been succesful for treating C.diff. This disease removes helpful microbacteria in the gut and leads to digestion and gastrointestonal problems. In this case the use of a fecal transplant from one healthy relative to the infected relative, is used to treat this disease.