Drafts

Action potentials are the units of transmission across nerve cells. Action potentials were first observed by Hodgkin & Huxley in a squid’s giant axon. Through experimentation and mathematics, they hypothesized a namesake model that suggested that there were gated channels controlling the rise and fall in membrane potential. As technology developed, this model was vindicated. Through the application of suction to a microscopic region of the axon, ion channels could be isolated and their current measured. When current was run through the axon, it was shown that the channels produced a short-term inward current that stops until the membrane returns to below resting membrane potential. Later studies using tetrodotoxin and other poisons yielded information about the structure of these channels. Today, the canonical information taught about action potentials is that there is a resting membrane potential around -65 mV, an action potential threshold of -40 mV, a rising phase, an overshoot above 0 mV, a falling phase, an undershoot under -65 mV, and a return to resting potential. The action potential is often referred to as an all-or-nothing response, as a neuron will fire once the membrane potential reaches threshold. Whether or not this occurs within a neuron is a complicated process that often involves thousands of computations. However, once the action potential reaches threshold, voltage-gated sodium channels open, sodium floods into the axon due to the concentration gradient and the electrical gradient, causing membrane depolarisation. Then, voltage-gated potassium channels open approximately 1 ms later - a system known as a delayed rectifier - allowing potassium to go down its electrochemical gradient to rush out of the axon, causing hyperpolarisation. The sodium channels lock preventing re-depolarisation, forcing the depolarisation to travel down the axon in a chain reaction of opening and closing voltage-gated channels. Then the sodium/potassium pump returns the membrane to resting potential, allowing for the next action potential to fire.

The use of bacteriophages in modern medicine has proved to be useful. The term “bacteriophage” stands for bacteria eater. Bacteriophages occasionally remove a portion of their host cells' bacterial DNA during the infection process and then transfer this DNA into the genome of new host cells. This process is known as transduction. Phage therapy is the use of bacteriophage to treat bacterial infections. Phage therapy is typically used when conventional antibiotics are not effective.

https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/bacteriophage-phage-293/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_therapy

Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs when the oxygen bound to hemoglobin within healthy red blood cells becomes replaced with CO. Because of this, the red blood cells are unable to engage in gas transfer with surrounding cells; which can therefore lend to organ and tissue damage. Carbon monoxide poisoning has traditionally been to treat patients with pure O₂. A new study however, has introduced a new candidate in CO poisoning treatment. Zazzerzon et al. exploited the ability of light to effectively unbind CO from hemoglobin in an extracorporeal apparatus (1). The use of this light treatment, Zazzerzon et al. saw a doubling in the CO removal rate in rats with healthy lungs when compared to treatment with oxygen alone, and a threefold increase in CO removal rate in rats with damaged lungs versus oxygen treatment (1). This treatment can be ideal for patient care, since carbon monoxide poisoning msut be dealt with swiftly in order to ensure decreased tissue damage. Implementing a treatment that filters out CO faster than existing methods is welcome news.

To measure the abundance of Vaccinium vacillans, a common and widespread shrub found in New England deciduous forests, I counted the number of individuals in eleven 4x4 meter plots that were dispersed randomly at three different sites. The sites were Mt. Norwottuck, Amherst, Massachusetts (42o 18'N, elevation 400 m), Plum Creek, Amherst, Massachusetts (42o 19'N, elevation 60 m), and Deer Brook, Swanton, Vermont (44o 06'N, elevation 50 m). Each plot was chosen at random. They were measured using a metric tape measure. Compass direction was used to ensure the 4x4 meter plots were measured accurately and the edges of the plots were not askew. The individuals were counted and recorded for each plot. The recorded data was then used to create Figure 1 and table 1.    

Taking a nap when tired can really change your day and give you the energy to make it through. Napping has benefits and negatives varying on your age and the time (both of day and length) of the rest. A nap is considered any short amount of sleep taken during the day, whether it be 20 minutes or two hours. The varyation of time can drastically affect the sleeper however. In general, sleep specialists suggest a 10-20 minute nap is best as it can help remove excessive sleepiness, relax the body and mind, as well as give fewer negative consequences when compared to longer rests. The National Sleep Foundation suggests 30 minutes is the longest you should be napping for. The younger the individual, the less likely they are to have negative sideeffects of a longer nap. The sideeffects are usually limited to 24 hours after the nap and include grogginess, difficulty concentrating, and interrupted sleep when you finally settle down for the night. The grogginess, confusion, and difficulty concentrating are labeled as Sleep Inertia and happens when a person wakes up during their REM sleep cycle. In that point in sleep, melatonin is at its highest in the brain which is the neurotransmitter that regulates the sleep-wake cycle. Those symptoms are more likely to occurr and can be more severe the longer you nap for. 

AI is becoming bigger player in our lives. From environmental, to healthcare to finance, it is starting to really take over certain branches of the economy. Moreover, because of this technology, these sectors have seen optimizations of processes that were never thought possible. With all things exists tradeoffs, with some of them being in the ethical space. How will we consider future generations without a job and without a “purpose?” What will we do in a case where the best solution is not one that benefits humans? Many more questions must also be answered quickly because technology is constantly evolving, and governments are struggling to keep up with all these changes. Although government regulation can sometimes cause stifling to innovation, at the very least some sort of basic control must be put in place or we risk future generations coping with very big problems that are small and manageable, for the time being. 

The future holds a world of excitable possibilities. With increasing technological advances, life is seemingly getting easier and people have much more time on their hands. At the forefront of technology, artificial intelligence or AI is rapidly gaining attention. AI is a machine or system that carries out tasks that if a human were to be doing that same task, the general public would view that person as intelligent. This branch of technology can have huge implications, such that in simply stating the definition, one can see how impactful it will be. However, there is a great deal of skepticism surrounding these systems, and rightfully so. Many have sighted ethical questions that must be answered before going forward with research into this fiel.  Moreover, respected individuals in the field have forewarned that one must carefully monitor the advances in this technology to prevent this system from escaping human control.

Imagine a world where AI is just part of everyone’s life. It has found a home in every sector and humans can no longer escape it. Let’s say that an AI entity decision is based on a plethora of learning algorithms, but unfortunately it has caused the death of humans. Who is at fault, the programmer or the AI? As AI begins to evolve and separate from human command, it is not far from reason to have them be responsible for their actions. In the same token, if the programmer never programmed this AI system, the deaths of humans would never have occurred. This specific question is asked frequently as the world of technology is left perplexed, unsure of what the correct answer may be

Does climate determine vegetation?  Vegetation in a particular region is a display of the climate within that area. Plants are sensitive to changes in climate, therefore vegetation typically reflects its environment. Photosynthetic rates sometimes vary among plants within a habitat, and across habitats, in ways that seem to make sense because they are correlated with species composition, habitat preference, or growth rates. (cite something from book) Vegetation can also be affected by the latitude and elevation in that area. As you increase in elevation (altitude), the temperature decreases. As you move farther north or south in latitude, the temperature also decreases. Based on this trend, a hypothesis is drawn that In a given New England region, vegetation patterns will mirror in high elevations and high latitudes. It is predicted that a widespread, common species will show parallel changes in abundance as elevation increases and as latitude increases in New England.

Plasmids are a very valuble tool for biologists. Plasmids are circular strands of DNA that are found in bacteria. Plasmids must contain an origin of replication (where DNA polymerase binds), a multiple cloning site (where you can add any gene you want), and a selectable marker (usually an antibiotic resistant gene). These plasmids can be inserted into any cell. If you want a cell to contain a certain gene, you place that gene in the plasmid, then place the plasmid in the cell. The selectable marker is usually an antibiotic resistant gene because this allows you to select for cells that contain the plasmid. You place the cells you believe to have taken up the plasmid on a plate with an antibiotic of your choosing. Only the cells containing the plasmid, with antibiotic gene and the gene of your choosing, will be able to grow on this plate. 

The discovery of cytoplasmic streaming made scientists then question, which cytoskeletal network was responsible for driving it. Scientists ingestigated two main networks, actin and microtubules. Both use protein subunits to form their polymer structures spanning the inside of cells. Actin using F-actin and microtubules using alpha/beta tubilin heterodimers. Motors on actin networks known as myosins move vesicles and organelles across the cell, similar to mircotubules which use kinesins in plant cells and kinesins/dyniens in animals cells. To understand cytoplasmic streaming, scientists needed to discover the network in charge. To do so, scientists began 'breaking' the system in plant cells using two chemicals, cytochlasin B and colchicine. When cytochlasin B interfered with the plant cell it apparead the cytoplasmic streaming process halted altogether. Washing the chemical out also confirmed the reversibility as the cells regained full cytoplasmic streaming after a short while. Scientists then decided to test colchicine in another test to determine if microtubules controlled any part of the process. Results showed no decrease in cytoplasmic streaming and therefore mircotubules may not affect this process. In order to confirm this, scientists added both chemicals to a single cell and noted similar results to previous tests. Both together inhibited cytoplasmic streaming, however, when scientists washed out cytochlasin B the cell regained function.