Drafts

Signals transmitted between animals usually have to travel some distance, and are often affected by their environmental. The first kind of environmental effect is attenuation, which is simply defined as an increase in the faintness of a sound with increasing distance. Sounds propagate spherically and base attenuation predicts a 6 dB decrease in sound intensity for each doubling of distance. However, sounds rarely conform to this model and experience excess attenuation due to the environment. Excess attenuation is affected by foliage density, temperature, humidity, and many other environmental conditions. Generally speaking, high frequency sounds will attenuate faster because they tend be more absorbed by the atmosphere than low frequency sounds. However, low frequency sounds close to the ground tend to suffer from interference due to sound waves reflecting off of the ground. The second kind of environmental effect on signals is degradation. Sound reflecting off of the environment will cause successive elements to become difficult to distinguish and will blur element form, effects collectively known as reverberation. This effect is especially noticeable in high frequency, rapidly modulated sounds, which suffer from greater scattering and element blurring. Scattering occurs more in high frequency sounds as they tend to bounce off of objects instead of wrapping around them like low frequency sounds. In forests, there are many objects that will cause reverberation, causing element form to break down, especially at high frequency. Rapidly modulated sounds, frequency or amplitude modulated, will degrade much more quickly in high object density environments, due to scattering and interference. Songs with elements in quick succession, such as rapid trills, will become more blurred the higher the object density in the environment. Whistles however will retain their frequency and won’t be blurred when they reflect off of the environment. As such, it is often the case that birds will communicate using lower frequencies and simpler songs in forests as opposed to open environments.

The human microbiome is a complex network of microorganisms that develop a symbiosis, both mutualistic and parasitic, with the human body in the digestive tract. Studies have been performed on the bacterial human microbiome, and its effects on human health. What has been less studied is the human mycobiome, or fungal microbiome. In recent studies, it has been observed that fungi can migrate from the gut interior to the pancreas. Additionally, in both humans and mice, those with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) cancers displayed a three thousand fold increase in fungi prevalence in those specific tissues than healthy subjects. This occurance of pathogenic fungi should be better understood, as well as its impact on human health.
 

(draft of METHODS abstract)

In this experiment, I identified an example of phytophagy, took photographs of the subject, and created a figure about the example. In doing so, I wrote out a set of methods describing how I created the figure. An observer took my methods, and subsequently created a replicate figure using the directions provided. Many differences are visible between the two figures, a result that can be attributed to lack of direction and specificity from the methods. Because of this lack of specificity, differences in camera angle and position, as well as figure formatting and organization are apparent.

I went to Haiti in Febuary and decided to use that as my topic tonight. Haiti may be suffering with poverty and a lack of food, but they are happy as the culture and the people hold them to place. They are extremely happy in their country (minus the current government), but together they unite. They have been united since 1804, when Haiti declared independence. There are many statues of Jean-Jacques Dessalines in Haiti and the citizens of the country take pride in him, as I have asked them. I met a couple guys during myvisit who have family in the United States (thus they can move there), but when I asked them why they wouldn’t go there, they said “How can I leave Haiti”. Thus, what holds them to their country, despite the hardships, are the people. Haiti also has a wide variety of wildlife, but is very near to the equator, so it makes it a little harder, as species like to be cool. It is however it is one of the most biologically significant countries of the world. I would like to go back and discover the flore and fauna. 

As humans, one characterisitc that defines us as a species is obligate miwifery.  Although there is not guarentee and neonate would surive with a midwife or not survive without one, the changes of survival by the neonate greatly increased if a midwife is present.  There are several factors which lead to a more complicated birth which resulted in the need for a midwife.  First, obligate bipedalism resulted in changes to the pelvis which narrowed the birth canal of the pelvis as well as lead to protrusion into the birth canal by the pelvic bones to form muscle attachments.  At the same time, the brain size of humans were getting larger.  The evolution of human was pushed by both these factors at the same time.  During birth, the neonate twists in the birth canal and exits so the it faces away from the mother, therefore the mother cannot pull the neonate out like in other primate species.  

The final panel C inluded the salad bar inside of harvest.  Figure 2 had less salad in the left salad container. In Figure 2, pea snacks on display on top of the salad bar. Between each panel, the orientation of the tongs are different.  Figure 1 has apples while Figure 2 has some fruit that is orange. On the white counter of Figure 1, there is a glare of light as well as a similar glare of light on the sneeze guard of the salad bar.  In Figure 2, the black base of the salad bar below the salad bar’s counter is larger. Figure 2 has a blue arrow pointing to the left container of lettuce. The “C” letter label in Figure 1 is narrower than the “C” label of Figure 2.  A black line extending the length of the right side of the panel in Figure 2.

Neurons communicate with one another in two ways, electrical synapses and chemical synapses. Electrical synapses are less common than chemical synapses and allow neurons to communicate with one another purely via ion exchange. The gap of an electrical synapse is approximately 3 nm wide and is bridged by gap junctions, themselves made up of connexons. These synapses facilitate communication in the nanosecond range - known as ultrafast transmission - and are especially found in areas of the body where response synchrony is required. Chemical synapses are the most common synapse type in the body and are an order of magnitude wider than electrical synapses, spanning ranges of 20 to 50 nm. A variety of chemicals are passed across this synapse type. First, amino acids are rapid transmission small molecules that directly create an excitatory or inhibitory response in the postsynaptic cell. Glutamate is an excitor while glycine, and GABA are inhibitors. Second, amines are slightly larger organic molecules that have an amine group, and include substances such as acetylcholine, dopamine, and epinephrine, that generally act as neuromodulators. Of these, acetylcholine is the only fast transmitter, and also serves as a direct excitor like glutamate. Third, neuropeptides are short polypeptides that act as neuromodulators, affecting how receptors will respond to different neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitter reception can yield a  wide array of effects, ranging from simple inhibitory or excitatory postsynaptic potentials to modulatory effects with many downstream responses. The variety of neurotransmitters and their associated responses is often pinned as playing a strong role in our neural complexity.

The replicate multi panel figure created by another student had difference amongst each panel. The Figure A images showed differences in hand orientation, use of an item to scale size, and how much of the bark from the shoot is in the image. The figure B images show differences in shadowing, the arrows pointing to the evidence of phytophagy, and variance in the distance the photo was taken from the tree. Figure C shows difference in shadowing and it is less inclusive in the replicate than the original in regards to how much of the background is included. Figure 2 also showed some differences in the map and the red X that marked the spot. The overall look of the two multi panel figures differed as well. Ultimately, each figure had difference that can be noted.

To determine if the students were able to replicate the multi panel figure first created by a fellow student, they were assigned the Methods Project. The approach taken was to locate evidence of phytophagy, take pictures of it, and create a multi panel figure with those photos. Those photos were to be labeled, show a reference to the size of the evidence, and include any arrows or graphics necessary to show where that evidence was located on campus. 

The leaf that I selected that showed evidence of phytophagy was chosen because of its accessibility. It was located on a shoot that was distinctive enough that another student following the methods would be able to find that exact leaf. The location was easy and convenient to access for anyone. The controlled factors would include weather and time of day that the photo was taken. With these factors considered another student should be able to replicate the figure after reading the methods.