Drafts

Nuclear lamin are a type five intermediate filament in all animal cells that little is known about. It is not common knowledge to know what nuclear lamin are or what they do. However, nuclear lamina mutations are responsible for a high number of common diseases in the human population. Nuclear lamina come in two main types, A and B. Both types of filaments have subtypes, and all animals express at least one subtype of B lamins. A common disease occurs when a type A prelamin, that is a type A lamin that is modified to produce other subtypes of A lamin, has a mutation to not allow it to bind properly to membranes and DNA. It congregates in the nuclear envelop and causes progenic syndromes and muscular dystrophies. These affect many people across the globe and nuclear lamina is clearly very involved in multi-cellular organisms. They are very structurally important for working muscles and an effective nervous system. 

The endoplasmic reticulum makes up 10% of the cell's volume and surounds the nucleus. There are two types of ER: smooth and rough. The smooth ER contains no ribosomes on its membrane, hence the name smooth. This is because the main purpose of the smooth ER is to synthesize lipids and decrease toxicity of the cell. In contrast the rough ER has ribosomes scattered along the membrane because the main purpose of the rough ER is to synthesize, process, and export protiens. In terms of the relationship of the ER to ribosomes, a ribosome will recgonize a translation initation sequence of an mRNA and begin synthesizing the protein. This complex will then bind a tranlocon located on the membrane of the ER. This channel protein will direct the newly synthesized protein into the lumen of the ER. The protein is then processed and can possibly be retained in the lumen, secreted into the cytoplasm, or released in a vesicle. 

The driver of evolutionary change is natural selection, a process where communities thrive or perish depending on the environmental conditions. Despite the unique traits that darwinism has brought, these evolved bodily functions are not exclusive to one species. Lamnid sharks and tunas are an example of two species thought to have independently evolved similar traits. However, there is little data regarding the mechanisms behind their convergent evolution. Under these circumstances, researchers have investigated the evolutionary relationship between mako sharks, Isurus oxyrinchus, and tunas’ swift, continual movement and morphological design. They also compared swimming kinematics, and muscular function to determine this. When exposed to a controlled swim tunnel, scientists observed how both species concentrate movement in their posterior, more specifically, the caudal region of the tail.

Results showed that mechanistically, allowing the mid-body to become virtually stiff and focusing muscle activation in the rear has evolutionarily allowed these fish to become more energy efficient. Because the tuna and shark resemble one another in their structural design, both are able to swim for longer periods of time compared to other fish, without the cost of travel. The important feature in tunas which allow this specialized movement is the physical uncoupling of the red and white muscle when in motion. In other species, the muscles act synchronously. This thunniform-like mobility in tuna was tested for similarity in mako shark via sonomicrometry, by shortening the muscle during passive and active swimming in the hopes to detect uncoupling. Throughout active swimming, they recorded asymmetrical muscle activity. There was a delay in red muscle strain compared to white muscle. This confirmed that red muscle was in fact uncoupled, supporting the claim that tunas and mako’s are evolutionarily similar. This is also indicative of strong posterior movement. The analogous relationship between the two species was supported morphologically as well. Elongated tendons were measured in both fish. Its association with the red muscle creates a system which allows the transfer of great power from the anterior of the animals’ to the posterior.

However, the driving force behind the system was found in the hypaxial lateral tendons in sharks, whereas the tuna’s primary source of transmission is located in the horizontal septum of the tendon. Despite this regional difference, the study overall was representative of a phenomenal evolutionary relationship between two separate species; though it does have its complications. Studying animals such as sharks without sedation can serve to be quite difficult. These predators pose great danger to the handlers, so precautions must be taken and some methods may be carried out quickly; resulting in fewer studies and limiting the amount of information available to others. To avoid potential risks in the future, studying the similar, less harmful tuna in the place of lamnidae can be useful.

A future experiment may include a common ancestor of the tuna to study the mechanisms in which they diverged. This will help map out the history of how tunas were able to develop different characteristics over time, and eventually become similar to the mako shark.

Gene duplication is a mechanism where genetic material is essentially generated and copied in a region of DNA. A regulatory mutation is a mutation that affects the spatial or temporal regulation of the gene without causing an entire loss of the gene product. Lastly, coding sequence mutations are changes in the coding sequence that can have different outcomes in expressivity like nonsense or missense mutations.

These three factors combined aided the use of a snake's venom to evolve into what it is today: from defensin genes that are used for different basic tasks like fighting infections in the pancreas, to today’s cromatine genes that encode the venom molecules and are used for attacking and destroying muscles. These changes did not alter the universal product of the gene, but in turn changed the way the genes were communicating. By sequencing genes from different snakes and mapping them out in an evolutionary tree, scientist Fry, colleagues compared the relationship of defensive and cromatine genes and found out that they are closely related. In newer generations that inherited the defensive gene, gene duplication took place for this change to occur.

There may have been an accidental duplication of a gene in which in turn would spark a new gene recruitment. Regulatory gene mutations would occur because gene recruitment now took place, helping change the gene’s functions through mutations: one of these copies would now be able to produce proteins in a venom gland. At the DNA level, a type of mutation could have occurred at the coding sequence by changing the amino acids, which, for this example, could have changed the expression of a gene from being a defensin gene to cromatine even by one difference in sequencing. Having these factors repeatedly happen over and over again in snakes eventually gave rise to a new family of venom producing genes.

Gene duplication, regulatory mutations, and the coding sequence all play different but important roles in the evolution of venom. Gene duplication, which is a mechanism where genetic material is generated/duplicated, and this area of DNA contains a gene. This event allows one copy to continue with the original function of said gene, while the other copy has the ability to evolve into something else. A regulatory mutation affects the temporal or spatial regulation without causing a complete loss of the gene product. This basically means that the mutation can change the different tissues the gene is expressed in, without losing the purpose/function of the gene itself. A coding sequence mutation is when a base is changed within the amino acid, and this can cause either a nonsense or a missense mutation (can change the whole amino acid or just the base).

Gene duplication plays a role in the evolution of crotamine because after the defensins evolved from a common ancestor and was inherited between many animals, including snakes, the extra copies of this gene created by gene duplication allowed the defensins to become more specialized. In the case of these snakes, the specialization was for attacking different pathogens found in the pancreas. This duplication, according to Fry, began to change the actual shape of the protein (after many duplications). A new shape meant a new function, which leads us from defensins to crotamine. The regulatory mutation changed the location of where the protein was being produced (from the pancreas, to the mouth). This mutation played a huge role in the usage of this gene. With a gene that damaged muscles instead of pathogens, found in a place crucial for killing prey it could easily used to incapacitate and kill the desired prey. As for the coding sequence mutation, a simple change of one amino acid could cause a cascade of other elements that led to crotamine as a deadly, venomous, protein. This type of mutation could explain how ancient venom is, especially in certain snakes that are deemed non poisonous. Meaning that a coding sequence mutation could’ve caused earlier ancestors to produce crotamine. This, along with gene duplication and regulatory mutation, played big roles in the evolution of crotamine, from defensins.

A variety of mechanisms allow fish to propel themselves through an ever-changing environment. Locomotor techniques such as wave-like motions are currently being researched, and with the help of recent technological advances, can now be examined in greater detail. In this article, George V. Lauder of Harvard University observed how morphological differences in fish, and the basic commonalities of swimming has become better understood. He viewed new approaches in kinematics, hydromatics and robotic studies of undulatory fish.

Lauder emphasized that not all fish use their fins the same way, because variations in their body shape make them complex. Stingrays are a unique example of this. Their flexible bodies and expanded pectoral fins help increase amplitude and lift. A study Lauder reviewed about center of mass dynamics (COM) went further in detail. Scientists compared a bluegill, clown knifefish, and an eel during surge and sway-like undulatory motion. The results from this study revealed that sway increased as speed increased. Researchers also observed that sway displacement was largest in eels. Lauder expressed that this particular experiment on COM was vital for understanding how physique affects aquatic propulsion, especially because COM research is lacking. He also notes that fish are able to alter the surface area of their fins. This helps them maneuver through difficult areas. In addition to kinematics, Lauder discussed a shark study which implemented a new hydromatic strategy by using 3D reconstructions of bonnethead sharks.

The experiment tested whether shark skin denticles have an effect on performance. Scientists 3D printed two bonnethead sharks, with and without denticles. When placed under appropriate swimming conditions, they discovered that intact surface skin increased the shark’s speed by 12.3%. This suggested that denticles can reduce drag, therefore improving performance. Biomimetics are an alternative to studying animals like the sharks in this study, because it is both harmless and safe for all that are involved.

Consequently, this has lead scientists to widen their range of research with recent advances in fish robotics. These realistic representations help researchers learn more about fish dynamics in an interactive way. Scientists manipulate variables, and even expose mimetic fish to several different conditions, without the limitations that might occur using live fish. Lauder analyzed an experiment which focused on modifying robotic fin supports to determine which level of stiffness corresponded with maximum performance.

Based on the results, the scientists in this study confirmed that a complex relationship between stiffness and flapping existed. As it turned out, optimal stiffness is based on the frequency of flapping. Constantly altering the shape of their fins allows fish to relax or stiffen their flippers and yield maximum performance with many different speeds. Despite the benefits, Lauder noted that physical models are still imitations and do not yet fully replicate the animals they represent. Even so, employing robotics in research is a safe and favorable alternative for animals that might be harmed for the sake of research. Evidently, these new techniques are incredibly helpful for understanding fish biology and provide innumerable opportunities for future research.

Arthropods are among the most diverse groups in eukaria. However, due to a rise in land-usage globally, arthropod biomass in these ecosystems is currently on the decline. Seibold et al. used anually sampled grasslands to measure biomass, abundance, and number of species of arthropods, discovering that these numbers have declined by 67%, 78%, and 34% respectively¹. These losses are not isolated to grasslands, however, as declines in forests were also observed. According to the study, policy reform regarding land use must be a priority of these losses are to be counteracted.

(1)https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1684-3

Small aquatic ecosystems are critical contributors to freshwater biodiversity and freshwater ecosystem services. Ponds in particular house more rare and unique species than any other small freshwater ecosystem. However, little research has been done into measuring the ecosystem integrity of small aquatic ecosystems due to few evaluations in the effects of anthropogenic activities on these ecosystems. In this proposal, we aim to evaluate the ecosystem integrity of small aquatic ecosystems local to the Amherst, Massachusetts area by (1) determining their flora biodiversity, (2) measuring their quality of the matter economy, and (3) identifying sustainable architecture structures around them. We will use Simpson’s biodiversity index as a simple measure of plant biodiversity, use soil core samples as a timeline of the matter economy, and we will compare the number of current sustainable architecture structures with previous numbers. With this data, we will determine if the priority of green architecture in local construction developments have followed the same upward trend observed on a national scale. Without research into these ecosystems, we risk losing valuable oases of biodiversity and the opportunities to identify anthropogenic factors that may threaten ecosystems on a global scale.

Seaweed aquaculture has increased in popularity and in economic value over the past decade, but still has potential to expand into a worldwide industry. Seaweed aquaculture involves the cultivation of a variety of species, and the popularity and fitness of these species have fluctuated over time as the climate changes. Aquaculture has been greatly developed in Asian and South-east Asian countries where seafood (including macroalgae) contributes to a decent proportion of the local diet. Seaweed farming has since spread south and has developed in the warm rich waters around Australia and the Pacific Islands. A recent evaluation suggests that more than thirty countries have aquaculture, particularly that of seaweed, contributing to their economy. Currently, EU member states, India, and South Africa are leading the world in implementing climate change mitigation procedures while Canada, the US, and Russia are lagging. The most extensive decarbonization efforts were implemented in EU member states, and China (Zheng, Streimikiene, Balezentis, Mardani, Cavallaro, Liao.) Even the countries leading in these aspects could benefit from greater implementation and development of seaweed aquaculture.

There are few memories that have persistently stuck with me from my childhood up until now. One of these profound memories of mine was the day I received a phone call in high school from a physician letting me know my father was in an almost fatal car accident. His left radial nerve was punctured by a Ford F-150, and since that day, he has lost proper function of his left hand. Amongst the chaos of it all, one single question seemed to run through my mind; it was not “what happened?” but “how could I help?” Since that day, I have strived to pursue the medical career path with an interest in neurology. As a child, I was so intrigued as to how he could lose the mind-body connection from his brain to everything attached to his radius. Along with my father’s accident, my teens were filled with doctor appointments, overnight stays at the hospital, and even surgeries. At only 16, I was having two major MPFL (Medial Patella-Femoral Ligament) knee surgeries. My surgeon finished his surgery knowing he will be able to help me swim again. This made me wonder what it might be like to influence someone’s life in a drastic way, perhaps even save them. That doctor made a difference in my life and in many others, which is ultimately a part of my long-term goal. Along with knee surgeries, I even got salmonella, and had to be admitted into the hospital for eight nights. The strain of salmonella I had in my body was a mutant! My doctor told me it was not one of the big five strains and that scientists have not yet discovered it; this made me realize that there is so much more to discover in the medical world, and when scientists of today and tomorrow discover them, they can impact the world.