Writing in Biology - Section 1

During the lab, melting points of both the phthalic acid and unknown 1 were taken before and after recrystallization.  Before recrystallization, phthalic acid had a melting point of 200-203°C.  The range being greater than 2°C difference is indicative of impurities in the sample. After recrystallization, the melting point of phthalic acid was determined to be 207-208°C.  The increase in temperature as well as the narrowing range is consistent with purifying the solvent.  The presence of impurities in a compound will cause a melting point depression.  This depression will be lower than the actual range for the pure compound and at a higher range of values.  Both these trends are shown with the data.  The melting point of phthalic acid is known to be 207°C (National Center for Biotechnology Information).  Due to this information and the trends of melting points before and after recrystallization, the phthalic acid had been successfully purified during the recrystallization.  Before being purified, unknown 1 had a melting point of 105-110°C.  After recrystallization, the new melting point was 124-125°C.  Like the melting point changes seen in phthalic acid, the impure sample of unknown 1 had a wide melting point range, greater than 2°C, which is indicative of an impure compound.  The new melting range is also larger, showing the melting point depression which occurring when impurities are found with a compound.  Like with phthalic acid, the unknown 1 was successfully purified based on the melting point values.   

1. While on campus at UMass Amherst, enter the Campus Center through the east entrance.
2. Roughly 10 meters forward on the right is Harvest Market
3. The perspective photograph of phytophagy was taken in landscape view with the "Harvest" sign framing the top of the photograph and the sides of the store outlining the left and right side borders
4. Enter Harvest Market and proceed straight forward to the salad bar.  
5. Remain on the south side of the salad bar
6. Take another photograph focused on the left side of the salad bar with the three types of lettuce for selection in the frame
7.  

Antibiotic resistant bacteria have become a terror for doctors, researchers, and patients in the last few decades. Overuse of antibiotics has led to mutations for resistance becoming commonplace in some bacteria species. This threatens our modern medical system, as well as the lives of all humans exposed to these bacterias. One possibly alternative is to simply work on developing a new antibiotic which bacteria are not yet immune to. As the new antibiotic is administered and (hopefully) kills off the bacteria, the process of lowering antibiotic use can begin. This combined process would hopefully eliminate the possibility of resistance occurring, at least at such a high rate and across multiple species of bacteria. Of course, this process is not perfect, and could result in new resistances being developed and individuals not getting the antibiotics they truly need. There is still room for genetic changes to happen spontaneously and result in resistance, but by killing off the resistant bacteria there is hope that acquired AR in bacteria can be lowered, or at least controlled.  

According to the review article, fish that have a DIO3 gene(a gene that binds to T4 and prevent it from affecting certain cells)knocked out have a higher neural crest cell proliferation migration and activation as well as apoptosis. In adult mice, hypothyroidism decreases mitotic neuroblast but not proliferation progenitosin SGZ, decreased number of committed neural progenitors and mature neuroblast and have reduced level of immature hippocampus neurons. Other studies have shown that OPC derived from SVZ-NCS requires a TH free environment, and a decrease in TH leads to a decrease in neurogenesis but not in oligodendrogenesis. The figure in the review article indicates that an increase in TH would cause the NSC commitment, and the lack of TH would cause determination in glial cells.  In studies that were conducted with TTR null mice, which have a lower thyroid hormone level, had reduced the apoptosis of progenitors in SGZ in adults. Other studies using TRa1 and DIO3 also confirm that in general, an increase in thyroid hormone leads to an increase in neurogenesis and neuron cell differentiation. A decreaseinf thyroid hormone generally indicates that there is a higher amount of oligodendrogenesis, as well as better remyelination of neurons. However, all of these studies are done in adult rodent brains and not developing zebrafish brains.

According to the review paper, the timing of thyroid development is happening during 2nd day, and thyroid hormone production starts after the third day. This means that the experiment is done after the fish has been producing a normal amount of thyroid for about two days.  

Neurogenesis: neurogenesis seems to occur from day 1 to day 3 after fertilization. The experiment is done after neurogenesis has been happening for a few days. In zebrafish, it is also notable that adult zebrafish have more active neurogenesis compared to mammalian species.

Oligodendrogenesis: oligodendrogenesis seems to occur from day 2 to day 7 after fertilization, meaning that the Thyroid hormone is added while it was occurring. 

There is a non-profit organization in Western Mass that few know muc about called Tapestry Health run out of Holyoke Massachusetts. They provide services from sexual health to family nutrition to community educations and trainings. One of their most controversial services provided is the "Needle Exchange". This involves an open drop-box for used needles and a free and public source for sterile ones. These needles are most often used for the administration of drugs, and not for medical purposes. Western Massachusetts has a drug epademic, and the use of and addiction to opioids has become a much more common disease. Many people find the idea of a needle exchange to be more hurtful than helpful to the community. It is thought that it supports drug abuse and rewards drug users. This opinion is very short sighted and a privilaged way of looking at those with addictions. What a needle exchange trul achieves is a safe, free, public way to reduce contamination and infection of bloodborne diseases in a population. Without options to anonymously opbtain free clean needles, drug users will not think twice about sharing or borrowing which opens up the door for dozens of deadly diseases to populate more people. The idea that providing needles somehow rewards drug addiction behaviors is also a very limited view. Without the option of clean needles, those with an addiction will not stop using, they will simply continue to use with extremely less safe methods and practices. The people addicted to drugs are in no way at fault for their battle with the disease and are due no consequences for what major medical corperations and pharmacies are doing to them. This is not about people wanting to do something, it is a beyond-biological need created by the dependence of their body systems. Needle exchanges are one of the most valuable provided cares that addicts have before they get serious help. Without them and without the ability for it to be free, people would be at great risks of deadly infections. 

Chickens cluck and squawk at various times throughout the day. The technical term for this clucking and squawking is chicken vocalization. Those who work with chickens, live with chickens, or keep them as pets swear that you can tell when they are happy and content just by listening to them. This concept is being investigated by some researchers from the University of Georgia. To do this they are conducting experiments where they use small flocks and record the vocal reactions to stressful situations. Realizing what sounds indicate unhappy chickens can create markers for identifying farms that need improvement. The overall health and happiness of a chicken matters when it comes to growth since unhappy or stressed chickens can have stunted growth. Stunted growth means loss of production for farmers since they profit by each pound of chicken they sell. Farms also use expensive detection equipment such as ammonia detectors to detect unsanitary conditions for the birds. Researchers are hoping the study of chicken vocalizations and creation of algorithms to detect unhappy noises might save money for chicken famers. A few microphones and the use of these algorithms would be cheaper than the ammonia detectors. Overall, the study of chicken vocalizations may be useful to farmers, but may also prove helpful for people who keep chickens as pets that just want to keep their chickens happy

Dickson argues that Woollley’s interpretation of the tomb and its contents being a ‘snapshot’ of the way of life in UR is wrong. He says we must not look at these tombs as a sample of life in UR, rather a ‘public transcript/record’ of how political elites wanted UR to be seen. Dickson says the burials don’t show the “tensions, ambiguities and social conflicts that must surely have existed in the city” and therefore we cannot trust that this was their way of life. Dickson adds, ‘just how dominant and durable a ruling order can be depends on how far it convinces others — and itself — of its right to rule and its ability to rule’ (Colley 1992, 193) implying that these tombs may have actually been ritual to impose the government's power, specifically through divinity. The kinds of artifacts found in the tomb and the fashion in which the people were displayed may indicate that the event was part of a numinous ceremony. Therefore a show of the governments divinity and ultimately their strength as a way to keep people in line.

Antibiotics have fundamentally changed medicine for the better. The onset of penicillin and other antibiotics seemed to spell the end for many bacteria-related illnesses. What medical professionals did not realize was that they were putting these bacteria under extreme artificial selection. This selection chose for antibiotic resistance, which has now surged into a public health epidemic. Due to this, researchers are actively seeking alternatives to these drugs. Bacteriophages-viruses that attack bacteria-are one such contender. Their specificity for bacterial cells and their ability to evolve alongside evolving bacterial defenses are ideal in a treatment that will stand the test of time. Another possibility are bacteriocins. These toxins are released by competing bacteria to inhibit growth. Research is pending on both these solutions in human treatment, but the future for fighting bacterial infections seems bright.

Cell expansion and growth occurs very differently in plants than it does animals. Animals tend to produce unique organs with specific cells for each organ, whereas plant growth is iterative and will generate many of the same organs. Stem cell tissue in plants is known as meristem and contains undifferentiated cells. There is a shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem both of which are responsible for primary growth, such as new leaves, flowers, and roots. The other kind of meristem found in the cambium is responsible for the growth of bark, xylem, and phloem. The basic structure of the apical meristems is a stacked one. The first level is at the apex of the meristem and consists of the newly dividing cells; the second level just below is where cell elongation takes place; underneath it, the third level is where cell differentiation occurs; and the last level below that is where mature cells are located. The cell division layer leads to the creation of new cells with primary cell walls that will generate leaves and flowers. The second level during which cell elongation occurs is a dynamic layer. Plant cells have the capacity to increase their solute potential by generating an electrostatic gradient that powers active transport channels that move metabolites and ions in the cell. Water can then enter the plant cells via osmosis or aquaporins. This raises the internal pressure of the plant cell - known as turgor pressure - which pushes against the primary cell wall causing it to expand. Some parts of the primary wall are less rigid than others, causing directional expansion, usually lengthwise. Eventually the pressure exerted on the primary cell wall equalizes with the pressure the wall exerts on the cell’s plasma membrane and expansion comes to a halt. At this point, the cells will begin to differentiate by synthesizing a variety of secondary cell walls that will determine their purpose. Once this process is done, the cells have fully differentiated and can now form the new organs of the plant.