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The Melospiza georgiana, more commonly known as the swamp sparrow, resides in sedge swamps that include cat tails, tussocks and various shrubs. Swamp sparrows eat insects and seeds and can be found foraging on mud at the edge of the water, as well as flying from shrub to shrub; often shrubs are no more than 1.5-2 meters high. They can be found in New England year-round and breeding occurs sometime between April and June.

 Male swamp sparrows singing attracts females to mate. Males will attract a mate to a territory that to which he claims. The male will chase out any intruding males within his territory, often with the help of his female. During the spring months, swamp sparrows can be observed gathering materials for nest making, copulating, and foraging within their territories. Swamp sparrows tend to build their nests off the ground in a low growth shrub. They cover their nest with grasses to camouflage it. With the nest being a little higher than ground level, there’s plenty of room for the water level in the swamp to rise and fall as precipitation occurs. Swamp sparrows usually lay between 4-5 eggs in a nest. Only females incubate the eggs while the male brings food to the female.

After the eggs have hatched, usually after 12-13 days of incubating, both males and females will feed the young. The young are altricial, meaning they are extremely vulnerable, unable to walk, fly or feed themselves. The young may leave the nest after about 10-13 days after hatching. Swamp sparrows may have up to two broods during a season.

The pursuit of green energy is a necessity to combat climate change; this much is certain. However, the way we are approaching this transition to renewable energy needs to be reevaluated. Green initiatives across the world tout wind, solar, and a distancing from fossil fuel-based energy production as goals not only in their respective countries, but globally. One green source of energy seems to be missing from this conversation, and that is nuclear. Nuclear energy has become unfavorable in the eyes of climate activists for several reasons, mainly their association to nuclear weapons and the possibility of meltdowns. What these activists have not been studying, however, is new progress in liquid fluoride thorium reactors (LFTR). These reactors are meltdown-resistant via new safety features. LFTRs feature a dump tank sealed off by a salt plug that melts in the case of an emergency. These reactors also cannot meltdown, since the core reaction is already in the molten state. Obtaining weapons-grade uranium from an LFTR is difficult, since these products are in solution with molten salt in the reactor. In addition, these reactors do not produce as much long-lived nuclear waste as traditional uranium-based reactors. Nuclear energy is the only real, efficient solution to our energy crisis, and therefore deserves a front and center place in global discussion.

The history of neurology is a fragmented one fraught with disagreements, propositions, and rebuttals, often taking two steps forward and one step back. The earliest evidence of brain surgery dates back to prehistoric skulls with the marks of trepanation and subsequent recovery. Many millennia later in 400BCE, the Ancient Greeks discovered the separation between the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS), though opinions were split as to the function of the brain. Two hundred years later, Galen of Ancient Rome found cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in sheep skulls and, in the current of the bodily humours popular at the time, concluded that it was this liquid that gave rise to the conscious mind. Records of brain research in the Occident end there for nearly 1700 years, until the 16th century. During the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci restarts the study of brain anatomy and makes detailed drawings of the brain and its ventricles. In the mid-1500s, Andreas Vesalius dissects the bodies of executed prisoners and refutes Galen’s hypothesis that CSF is the seat of consciousness, claiming that the brain matter gives rise to the mind. However, in the 1600s, Descartes counters Vesalius’ theory in saying that the mind and brain are separate entities, thus giving birth to Dualism. This idea wouldn’t last long in the field of neurology as Willis and Wren’s study of brain anatomy led them to the same conclusion as Vesalius, brain matter not CSF holds human consciousness. Many small discoveries over the next centuries resulted in the discovery that nerves communicate via electricity and that different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions. The functional unit of the brain, the neuron, was only discovered in the 1900s when they were stained by Camillo Golgi. For decades Golgi and his colleague Santiago Ramon y Cajal would debate neuronal function. Golgi favoured the idea that neurons formed a contiguous system while Cajal hypothesized that neurons were separable, discrete units. Finally, as we approach the 21st century, the advent of the electron microscope vindicated Cajal’s theory. Neurons are in fact the basic unit of the brain and, though separate, they communicate via synapses.

Plasma cell dyscrasias is discussed in this article through the analysis of multiple myeloma. Multiple myeloma is a cancer of the plasma cells but of a certain type. When plasma cells begin to grow abnormally, they make a certain type of antibody and form a monoclonal paraprotein. They can be detected in the bone marrow and other tissues. The premalignant stage of multiple myeloma is characterized by the presence of the abnormal antibody, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS). This antibody is present in 3-4% of normal individuals over the age of 50 years old and is only an issue if it progresses to multiple myeloma. The risk of MGUS progression to multiple myeloma increases by 10% in the first 5 years after diagnosis MGUS could also develop into a different plasma cell disorder as it is still an abnormal protein. This development could lead to disorders such as plasma cell leukemia or Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia. 

Bilirubin is a by-product of red blood cell breakdown which is a mammilian specific by-product of red blood cell breakdown.  Reptiles, amphibians, and birds all have red blood cells break down in heme then to biliverdin, something they are able to excrete without any addtional breadown.  Mammals, on the other hand, have the bilirubin break down into biliruben. One of the key evoltionaly differences between mammals and these other species is the placenta connecting the mother and child together.  Since this trait has evolved and been conserved through mammels, it begs the question if there is a benifit to having biliruben in the system of infants.  Biliruben is an antioxident that could prevent DNA damage during the development fo the fetus.  

In utero, the fetus’s red blood cells break down and is filtered through the placenta.  From there, the mother breaks down the bilirubin into the expendable form in their liver and its rid of waste.  When a baby is born, it is disconnected from the mother and its liver is not fully functional so it cannot breakdown the bilirubin themselves.  If levels of bilirubin are too high, the baby can be diagnosed with hyperbilirubin which appears are jaundice in the baby.  This is concerning to doctors taking care of the newborns becuase if the levels of biliruben are too high, then the child would be left with serious brain damage.  Depending on how much jaundice the newborn is presenting, they are placed under lights to reduce the levels of biliruben.  If the levels of biliruben in newborns did not benefit the fitness of the child, then natural section should have weeded it out.

GMOs stand for genetically modified organisms. Their DNA has been artificially altered with the purpose to enhance effectiveness for human needs. These effects include longer shelf life, taste, nutrients, the ability to withstand pesticides, and faster/larger-growing plants and animals. GMOs are found in agriculture products and livestock. An explicit example of GMOs used is to fasten the growth and size of chickens. They are everywhere in grocery stores, and can even start from the birth of livestock. You have probably heard of people preferring organic-grown produce when shopping at their local grocery store. The preference stems from Monsanto, a major producer of pesticides and genetically modified crops, who sells farm products that have improved yields and cut down on some pest problems. A series of scandals involving Monsanto has damaged its reputation with consumers. Monsanto is well-known to genetically modify their seeds and crops, increasing annual yields by forcing growth hormones into livestock. Although there has been little evidence showing GMOs are harmful to our bodies, it has also induced a love-hate relationship between the available product and its consumers. They also sue many farmers over patent infringement, claiming they own the genetically modified crops they grow because of the seeds have been modified from the company. These are the reasons Monsanto is an unethical company.

In the depate of nature versus nurture, a recently discovered gene has added contributed to the debate. A mutation to the MAOA  gene, or the "Warrior Gene", is linked to anger management issues and violent behavior. When the MAOA gene is shortened, it inhibits the body's ability to clear excess seratonin in the neural synapses of the brain. This excess seratonin causes a good mood to turn agressive, pretty quickly. Research about this gene and the symptoms is relatively new. A team of scientists took genetic samples from a wide range of participants; ranging from buddhist monks to violent gang members. The genetic samples were tested for the Warrior Gene which some think is nature's cause of human violence. The results of the genetic tests showed that the three sampled buddhist monks had the gene, while other more violent participants did not. This result argues for nurture's cause of human violence, that a person's surroundings and upbringing are more perswasive in personality and behavior. Although some results were shocking, overall this research still leaves the debate of nature versus nurture up for debate. 

Spiders are among the world’s largest and most diverse animal lineages. They have diverse behaviors. For example, some families build webs for prey capture whereas others are active hunters that stalk their prey using vision.  These behaviors correlate with differences in their visual systems. The number, complexity and arrangement of spider eyes vary across spider families. Spiders thus provide an opportunity to undertake comparative studies. In particular, very little is known about the neurobiology of spider brains. Spider brains are very different than those of insects and even other chelicerates, such as scorpions and harvestmen. Due to the absence of a dedicated olfactory/chemosensory appendange, spiders lack the associated neural processing regions found in most other arthropods. Spiders are also the only known chelicerates that lack immunoreactivity to proteins involved in arthropod learning and memory found in other arthropods. Instead, most of a spider’s protocerebrum, the first segment of its fused nervous system, is dedicated to visual processing. The size and organization of the visual processing regions of the protocerebrum varies across spider families.

I think Roman Imperialism took an interesting and slightly unexpected approach towards annexing new territories. Rome emphasized idea of “empire of fides” (Potter, 62), where the territories were given a certain amount of respect if they followed the outlined treaties. However, these territories were held under military threat so the empire seemed more based on threat of destruction rather than fidelity to Rome. In addition, "’citizenship without the vote’ (civitas sine suffragio)” (Potter, 61) offered a way to make territories feel part of the Roman empire. I doubt that this sentiment really altered the feelings of the newly acquired territories because they had no authority to change it. With the perspective of contemporary imperialism in mind, Rome might have taken a more humane approach to annexing new territories. I wonder how Roman imperialism would compare and contrast to British imperialism. I think that the story about how the Etruscans defeated the Gauls by violating the law of nations is a good example about how Roman and British imperialism are similar. The Roman senate reacted to this violation, “here personal popularity and influence had so much more weight that the very men whose punishment was under discussion were elected consular tribunes” (Potter, 169). Even though these soldiers violated laws of war, they still were rewarded which strikes a strong similarity to British officers that abused their power and still were promoted.

Potter, D. S. (2018). Ancient Rome: a new history. NY, NY: Thames & Hudson.