Writing in Biology - Section 1

The goal of the research was to study the pathology of myelin and axon in PMP22 overexpressing mice, a mouse model often used for CMT1A. The research question that is asked in the research is what is the change to the mice’s muscle tone, electrophysiology, and histology in the course of 1.5 years?

The experiment showed that the phenotype that is measured through noninvasive measures is indicative of certain morphology of the cells in mice and that the disease gets worse both in behavior and in morphology, histology, and pathology as the mice age. In addition, the C3 mice, in general, had less severe symptoms compared to the C22 mice but had symptoms whereas the control did not have any symptoms. In general, the C3 mice would be the better model for CMT1A.

The impact of this research on the disease is the creation of new model of CMT1A mice, which have a relatively more mild symptoms, and as a result would be more effective model compared to C22 model. This is important because the severity of C22 mice means that the treatment that work in C22 model would less likely be able to work in humans because humans generally do not have symptoms that severe. By having a less severe model, it will allow better replication in humans, saving time and money. 

Today scientists know that actin, a protein structure in the cell, and myosin, motors running on actin structures, produce the phenomena known as cytoplasmic streaming (CS). CS is the movement of vesicles, organelles, and other cargos through the cell. This movement has been observed for a long time, however, scientists wanted to isolate exactly which structures in the cell facilitated this movement. In order to know how something works in biology, it's broken, usually in one of two ways. Either add a drug/compound to disrupt the processes, or genetically modify a specific gene. In this case, scientists used the drug approach. There were three factors scientists believed may be associated with CS, Actin, microtubules, and protein synthesis. Drugs inhibiting each respective factor were introduced. CS stopped in the Actin trial only. To verify the other two factors weren't important for CS a mix of drugs was added and in both when the actin inhibitor was introduced, CS stopped. 

Plants and animals owe their regenerative and replaceable properties to a class of cells known as stem cells. Plants specifically have 4 types of stem cells, also called meristems, scientists have identified and studied. First, is the shoot apical meristem (SAM). SAM's can be found at the tips of growing shoots as small translucent clumps. They're encased by a protective cover of the differentiated cells they've recently produced as to prevent any damage. Second, are auxiliary meristems. These meristems determine the sites of leaf growth and leaf categorization. If off the main shoot there is a leaf and an auxiliary meristem between the two, this leaf can be classified as a simple leaf. A shoot next to an auxiliary meristem next to a branch with leaves classifies the branched leaves as compound leaves, where each individual leaf is a leaflet. A shoot next to an auxiliary meristem next to a branch off of which smaller branches appear with leaves is classified as a doubly compounded leaf. Third, is root apical meristems (RAM). RAM's appear at root tips with a hard shell protecting the absolute tip. This is because, unlike the SAM, the roots are more susceptible to damage. Similar to the SAM's these cells grow the roots out while also producing more meristematic cells. Fourth is cambium cells. There are two cell types that fall under the cambium denomination; the cork cambium, and the vascular cambium. The cork cambium includes the bark and phloem on a plant near the outside. The vascular cambium includes some of the phloem and xylem cells on the inside of the plant.

When deciding on a topic for my research proposal, I began with going to the Umass Amherst Libraries page. While on this page, I thought about the different kinds of projects that I could construct. I wanted to choose a topic that I would be able to replicate and write a methods for. I decided to search for eye colors in populations. I thought it might be interesting to do a proposal project analyzing the percentage of certain eye colors in the Umass population. I searched through the given options and looked for an article that had a literature review. I chose an article called, “A pupil center detection algorithm based on eye color pixels differences.” I felt that this topic would be relevant to my research proposal. I clicked on the link and was directed to a page on the Umass libraries with the entire article.

For a 60 years, scientists have deduced that medical therapy is not a generalized treatment. This is due to the widspread side effects in patients who undergo therapy, with treatment rarely ending in success. Undoubtedly, there was much to be discovered about the relationship between host genetics and response to treatment for diseases. However, it is this drawback that has lead to modern day’s focus on Personalized medicine (PM). Disease therapies are now fine-tuned and specialized, reducing the rate of failure to almost zero. Though this medical model is not necessarily new, technological and computational advances have allowed PM to increasingly gain attention within the last decade. Current research on personalized medicine has created opportunities for both the patient and healthcare providers in the pharmaceutical sector.

To add, the PM approach costs less, and is more efficient than the traditional medical care process. This is because of its ability to individualize, creating more space for the budget by reducing the large amounts spent on Clinical trials (CT) traditionalluy used with other techniques. PM focuses on the DNA of the patient to treat disease. There are new advances which will gain public’s understanding of the human body and expand the market. Scientists have been researching our genome and focusing on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) through the development of genetic analysis tests. These tests, or genetic kits made available to the public, are in the first stages of many.

Over 60 years ago, scientists had began speculating that medical therapy should not be considered a generalized treatment. Too often would patients respond with varying side effects, with treatment rarely ending in widespread success. Undoubtedly, there was still much to be discovered about the relationship between host genetics and response to treatment for diseases. However, it is this drawback that has lead to modern day’s massive limelight on Personalized medicine (PM). Disease therapies can now be fine-tuned at the patient level, reducing the rate of failure to virtually zero. Though this medical model is not necessarily new, technological and computational advances have allowed PM to rapidly gain attention within the last decade. Current research on personalized medicine has opened a plethora of possibilities for both the patient and for healthcare providers in the pharmaceutical sector.

Additionally, the PM approach is cheaper and more efficient than the traditional medical care process because of its individualization, and can create more space for the budget by reducing the large amounts spent on Clinical trials (CT). At the core of PM’s ideology is the individual, represented by their DNA. There are new advances which will revolutionize the public’s understanding of the human body and expand the market. Scientists have been researching the genome and focusing on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): the gateway to good health and longevity, through the development of genetic analysis tests. Though genetic kits are still in the first stages of infancy, the possibilities are endless.

T cells are synthesized in the red bone marrow of the body. When a T cell receptor is created, it has the potential to differentiate into a helper T cell or a Cytotoxic T cell. Helper T cells help carry out interactions involving pathogens and cytotoxic T cells kill the pathogens. If the T cell receptor becomes a cytotoxic T cell, it will carry a CD8 protein which recognizes class I MHC cells.  Once the T cell divides to become cytotoxic T cells , they run around in the periphery and kill our own abnormal cells. If the T cell differentiates to become a Helper T, they will carry CD4 proteins and recognize class II MHC's. Upon activation they divide and produce memory cells. They also regulate and coordinate an immune response. In addition, the T-helper cell activates / turns on the B cell. B cell divides and as a result we get lots of other cells. Plasma cells that secrete antibodies. T cell helps turn on the B cell which helps make antibodies and memory cells. 

An economic analysis might seem like a rather uninteresting perspective to the antebellum era. However, the economic pressures that divided, yet united Northern and Southern America can not be overlooked. Early 1800s both North and South relied on farming. In the north, close family units worked together on a small subsistent farm with only a local trading economy available. In the South the farms were larger due to the climate and crops grown. Around 1810 the capitalist economy in the North started to take hold and break down the small family units. Woman began to move to the cities to work in factories and send back pay checks to the family. There was a sudden emergence of an unskilled labor, working class in the north. With the introduction of the cotton gin, the south underwent a smiliar explosive economic expansion. The number of cotton that could of been produced exponentially increased by 1840 and therefore the number of slaves required to operate such large operations increased as well. Even though the international slave trade was disbained in 1808, the upper south started to sell slaves to the lower south due to over crowding and industrailization in the upper south. Both the North and the South looked West as a means of economic expansion. The North needed the West to be strictly a free labor system so as to not compete with slavery. However the South wanted to move West with slaves in order to keep expanding their current reality. This results in the basis for initail conflict between the north and the south. 

Our bodies require the formation of proteins at all times - whether it's for cellular function or intercellular function or it is needed for an organ in general. All systems in our body need protein to function. The process involves two parts to it: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process by which the DNA transfers its information to an mRNA, while translation is the process by which mRNA helps to create the protein. During transcription, DNA unwinds and mRNA nucleotides (cytosine, guanine, adenine and uracil) align along the sense strand according to the base-pairing rule. One the strand forms, it is transported out to the ribosome subunit where translation takes place. There are tRNA nucleotides floating around in the cytoplasm. They bind to amino acids and transport them to the same ribosomal subunit where the mRNA is waiting to br translated. The tRNA align the corresponding amino acids and form a polypeptide chain. Then the tRNA leaves and the polypeptide chain is either transported within the cell or out of the cell via exocytosis. Most of the time the chain is transported to the Golgi body for modification. Once done, they are packaged into vesicles and transported out via exocytosis.