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Changing the phenology of flowering times in cranberries not only affects cultivators but it also affects species that closely interact with the cranberries. Lycaena epixanthe, bog copper butterflies, are affected by earlier flowering times of cranberries (Ellwood, Playfair, Polgar, et al. Int J Biometeorol 2014). Adult bog copper butterflies consume flower nectar while the developing caterpillars consume shoots and leaves. Two major ecological issues occur when the phenology of the cranberry changes. First, the phenology of the bog copper butterfly may not match up with its food source; the cranberry. Second, if the cranberry flowers earlier and cultivators spray herbicide earlier, then the bog copper butterflies may come after the cultivators have sprayed rather than before. This may have negative impacts on the survival rate of the bog copper butterfly. Cultivators may find it easier to yield a crop that is not consumed by the bog copper butterfly caterpillars, however, they still need the butterfly as a pollinator for future crops. The use of pollinators in agriculture has been well studied in regards to bees as pollinators (Bartomeus et al.). Understanding this process is important as it may clarify the process of earlier flowering times and pollination for both agricultural purposes as well as in the wild. 

It is a well documented phenomena that flowering times of plants have been occurring earlier while global temperatures continue to rise (Bartomeus, Ascher, Wagner, Danforth, Colla, Kornbluth, Winfree, 2011). The New England Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon, is not astray to this phenomenon (Ellwood, Playfair, Polgar, et al. Int J Biometeorol 2014). Cranberries in New England have long been important to New England culture, economy, and ecosystems. With cranberries requiring specific cooling hours between the temperatures 32 °F and 45 °F, the climate of southern Massachusetts provides perfect ecological conditions for cranberries. These conditions allowed Massachusetts to be the second largest producer of cranberries in the United States. With global temperatures rising, flowering of cranberries have been occurring earlier (Tikuma, Liepniece  2015). This has proposed issues for cultivators and pollinators alike. Earlier flowering times may be affecting Lycaena epixanthe, the bog copper butterfly (Ellwood, Playfair, Polgar, et al. Int J Biometeorol 2014). A mismatch in flowering times and emergence of the butterflies may have negative impacts on both the livelihood of the butterflies, but also cultivators. After using records of flowering times from the nineteenth and twentieth century, it was found that indeed flowering times occur earlier (Ellwood, Playfair, Polgar, et al. Int J Biometeorol 2014). A total of 43 species were studied to have shown that those species are flowering earlier with warmer temperatures. The cranberry is also flowering earlier with warmer temperatures (Miller-Rushing, Primack 2008). Earlier flowering times have brought on both ecological and economical concerns.

With evidence that 43 species in Massachusetts are flowering earlier due to rising temperatures, other regions throughout the United States or globally may see similar results. A meta analysis was conducted to determine the effects of climate change on both flowering plants and animals. This analysis also showed that there was a shift in phenological process that mirrors the expected outcome predicted using prior knowledge of ecological constraints on individual species (Root, Price, Hall, et al. 2003). This information can be used to understand the results of the study done on the 43 species in Massachusetts and the global implications it indicates.

Changing the phenology of flowering times in cranberries not only affects cultivators but it also affects species that closely interact with the cranberries. Lycaena epixanthe, bog copper butterflies, are affected by earlier flowering times of cranberries. Adult bog copper butterflies consume flower nectar while the developing caterpillars consume shoots and leaves. Two major issues occur when the phenology of the cranberry changes. First, the phenology of the bog copper butterfly may not match up with its food source the cranberry. Second, if the cranberry flowers earlier and cultivators spray herbicide earlier, then the bog copper butterflies may come after the cultivators have sprayed rather than before. Cultivators may find it easier to yield a crop that is not consumed by the bog copper butterfly caterpillars, however, they still need the butterfly as a pollinator for the crop. This process has been studied with bees as pollinators (Bartomeus et al.). Understanding this process is important as it may clarify the process of earlier flowering times and pollination for both agricultural purposes as well as in the wild.

As global temperatures rise, phenological changes have occurred causing flowering times of plant species to occur earlier than previously recorded in the past (Bartomeus, Ascher, Wagner, Danforth, Colla, Kornbluth, Winfree, 2011). The New England Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon, is not an exception to this phenomena. Cranberries act similar to wild plants in the event of phenology differing in warmer temperatures. Since cranberries have been an important part of New England culture, cultivators have kept records of cranberry growth and production. Cranberry cultivators have been spraying fungicide on the crop when 10% of the flowers have bloomed. This quantifies timing of cranberry flowering over the years. The earlier flowering times of cranberries affects not only cultivators, but other species that interact closely with cranberries. Cranberry shoots and leaves are an important food resource for the bog copper butterfly, Lycaena epixanthe. As global temperatures rise, the concern for earlier flowering times affecting both human cultivation and other species interactions continues to grow.

The Shannon-Wiener Index can help determine if supplementing a loss in biodiversity with a gain that is different is justifiable. Human development is without question altering the landscape and in turn altering where species diversity. Fragmentation by roads, properties, parking lots etc. is separating species making it harder and harder for complex communities. If a new development takes place, does it eliminate on the of the species occupying that area? If so, biodiversity offsetting should supplement the loss of that species with either an equal replacement or replacing the same species that was lost. More typically an equal, but not the same, supplement is put in place to keep the net biodiversity the same. This however is  unjust. Not all amounts of species are equal. This is where measuring species evenness comes into play. Rather than just measuring species richness, how many different species are there, the measure of species evenness will show how close in numbers each species is.

Species diversity occurs at different spatial scales and that is why the Shannon-Wiener Index is used to measure it. The Shannon-Wiener Index is calculated using a mathematical equation. It takes into account the proportion of the species in consideration to abundance. Claude Shannon, whom which the index is named after, was an electrical engineer that studied at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and later Princeton. After working for Bell Telephone Laboratories for about 15 years he began working with communications equations that essentially became the basis for the Shannon-Wiener Index (Spellerberg, Fedor, 2003). The first time the Shannon expression was published was in A Mathematical Theory of Communication. It expresses information, choice, and uncertainty (Shannon, 1948).. This idea became relevant to determine the uncertainty of species diversity which is thus relevant to determining if supplementing a loss in biodiversity with a different gain is calculable.  

Shannon, C.E. (1948) A Mathematical Theory of Communication. 

    Bell System Technical Journal, 27, 379-423.

Spellerberg, I., & Fedor, P. (2003). A Tribute to Claude Shannon (1916-2001) and a Plea for More

 Rigorous Use of Species Richness, Species Diversity and the 'Shannon-Wiener' Index. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 12(3), 177-179. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.silk.library.umass.edu/stable/3697500

Biodiversity offsetting is when a loss in biodiversity is then compensated for by a gain. This should result in no net loss at a minimum and if possible lead to a net gain in biodiversity. This loss in biodiversity is often due to human activity such as development. Biodiversity offsetting can be measured by measuring the species richness and species evenness. As an undergraduate student that is majoring in Biology with a focus on ecology, special attention is given to biodiversity. Biodiversity is a major determinant to the overall function and dynamics of ecosystems. Biodiversity can be measured using the Shannon-Wiener Index. When discussing a loss in biodiversity that is supplemented by a gain, a controversial question comes into view. Is it morally correct to experience a loss caused by human development that is replaced by a supplemental gain even if that gain is not the same as what was lost? In the grand scheme of things biodiversity in itself is what is important, not the individuals that make up the whole. Ultimately, this means that biodiversity offsetting should be measured by species richness as well as species evenness.

As global temperatures rise, phenological changes have occurred causing flowering times of plant species to occur earlier than previously recorded in the past (Bartomeus, Ascher, Wagner, Danforth, Colla, Kornbluth, Winfree, 2011). The New England Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon, is not an exception to this phenomena. Cranberries act similar to wild plants in the case of the phenology differing in warmer temperatures. Since cranberries have been an important part of New England culture, cultivators have kept records of cranberry growth and production. Cranberry cultivators have been spraying fungicide on the crop when 10% of the flowers have bloomed. This quantifies timing of cranberry flowering over the years. The earlier flowering times of cranberries affects not only cultivators, but other species that interact closely with the plant. Cranberry shoots and leaves are an important food resource for the bog copper butterfly, Lycaena epixanthe. As global temperatures rise, the concern for earlier flowering times affecting both human cultivation and other species interactions continues to grow.

As global temperatures rise, phenological changes have occurred causing flowering times of plant species to occur earlier than previously recorded in the past (Bartomeus, Ascher, Wagner, Danforth, Colla, Kornbluth, Winfree, 2011). The New England Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon, is not an exception to this phenomena. Cranberries act similar to wild plants in the case of the phenology differing in warmer temperatures. Since cranberries have been an important part of New England culture, cultivators have kept records of cranberry growth and production. Cranberry cultivators have been spraying fungicide on the crop when 10% of the flowers are bloomed. This quantifies timing of cranberry flowering over the years. The earlier flowering times of cranberries affects not only cultivators, but other species that interact closely with the plant. Cranberry shoots and leaves are an important food resource for the bog copper butterfly, Lycaena epixanthe. As global tempertatures rise, the concern for earlier flowering times affecting both human cultivation and other species interations continues to grow.