The RTK-PI3 kinase-Akt pathway can be mutated in a few ways so that it is always "on", even in the absence of an external signal. This pathway inhibits apoptosis. One mutation is a loss of function in Bad, which usually binds the inhibitory protein Bcl2. If Bad cannot bind to Bcl2, Bcl2 can always inhibit apoptosis. Another mutation is a gain of function in Akt. If Akt was always active, it would not need the upstream parts of the pathway to be turned on, and it was always phosphorylate Bad, letting Bcl2 inhibit cell death. The third utation that would lead to this pathway always being on is a lss of function in PTEN, the phosphatase that removes a phosphate group from PIP3. If PIP3 never lost a phosphate, it would always be active, and could dock Akt and PDK1 to the membrane, inititating the rest of the pathway. 

Jasmonic acid (JA)is a hormone produced in plants that is made as a defensive response to necrotrophic pathogens, or pathogens that kill the host plant and consume the dead matter.  JA also stimulates an induction of anti-herbviroy responses. The anti-herbivory chemicals can only be produced in the presence of a wound, likely after an insect or animal starts eating. Jasmonic acid is transported through plant vasculature, but it can also act locally, meaning that where the wound is will also produce anti-herbivory chemicals. Perception of JA is through the COI1 receptor, which is located inside the cell. JA also stimulates the production of volatile signaling compounds, which can then prime other tissues and plants for attack by making them unpalatable, or poor-tasting. These volatiles are recognized by the insects or animals that eat them and turn them away from consuming the plant further.

Jasmonic acid is a hormone produced in plants that is made as a defensive response to necrotrophic pathogens, or pathogens that kill the host plant. It also stimulates an induction of anti-herbviroy responses. The anti-herbivory chemicals can only be produced in the presence of a wound, so after an insect or animal starts eating. Jasmonic acid is transported through plant vasculature, but it can also act locally, meaning that where the wound is will also produce anti-herbivory chemicals. Perception of JA is through the COI1 receptor, which is located inside the cell. Jasomic acid also stimulates the production of volatile signaling compunds, which can the prime other tissues and plants for attack by making them unpalatable, or bad-tasting. These volatiles are recognized by the insect or animal that eats them and turns them away from consuming the plant.

Proteins that will be sent to the nucleus must have a nuclear localization sequence, found anywhere in the primary structure, to go there. Importin binds to the NLS on the cargo protein, and enters the nucleus through the nuclear pore complex. Once inside Ran-GEF switches out a GDP molecule for GTP, and this complex binds to importin, stimulating the release of the cargo protein inside the nucleus. The importin-Ran complex then leaves the cell, and GAP helps hdrolyze the GTP back into GDP. This stimulates teh release of importin so the cycle can then start over with a new cargo protein. The protein that entered the nucleus cannot now leave the nucleus unless it contains a nuclear export signal as well.

When I was younger, I had two guinea pigs: Sugar and Cinnamon. Sugar was albino, with red eyes and white hair, while cinnamon was light brown withw hite spots. The two of them were sisters. Guinea pigs are not hard to care for, generally, and require fairly little maintenance. If bedding is used in the cage, it must be cleaned out and changed every few days to allow the guinea pigs a clean place to live. Their water must also be replaced at least once a day, and be put in the cage at an accessible height. Guinea pigs are herbivores, meaning they eat plants. My guinea pigs enjoyed lettuce, carrots, and spinach, but if I put them outside they would be satisfied just eating grass! Because Sugar and Cinnamon were long haired guinea pigs, they required baths once a week. These were difficult because they had to be done in the sink, and they both hated them. The pigs would squeal and squeal until the were released, and they had to be completely dried off before bing put in the cage or else bedding would get stuck in their hair!

Plant response to overcrowding – Lemna minor example

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2018.06.007

Relative importance of competition and plant-soil feedback, their synergy, context dependency and implications for coexistence

There are three basic types of scientific articles are research articles, reviews, and notes or brief communications. Research articles are papers where an experiemtn was performed and the author is reporting on what was done ad what the results were. They generally contain an introduction of the subject, the methods that were performed, the results of the experiemnt, and the author's discussion of those results. Reviews are pieces of writing in which the author reports on a certain topic or body of knowledge as a whole, and highlights certain researchers or experiemnts done that have furthered the knowledge of the subject. Reviews can also include current debates on a topic or gaps in knowledge. Notes and brief communications are shorter works that provide an overview of topics to inform the scientific community. They can include observations that will be studied more in-depth at a later point, or results of an experiemnt can be summarized if they are not extensive. Both research articles and brief communications are usually peer-reviewed, while reviews may or may not be.

Within the cell, the movement of proteins is very regulated. Each protein must have specific signal sequences in order to get sent to where they are supposed to go. Proteins that have a nucleus signal sequence will get imported in from the cytoplasm, and the signal sequence is not cleaved off once the protein enters the nucleus. Nuclear import is a process that involves the importin enzyme and the protein also folds as it enters the nucleus. First, importin binds to the cargo protein and moves through the nuclear protein channel into the nucleus. Once inside, GEF substitues GDP for GTP in the GTPase complex which binds to the cargo protein and importin, stimulating the release of the cargo protein. The rest of the complex then exits the cell through a separate channel. Once back in the cytoplasm, GAP substitutes GTP for GDP which initiates the release of the GTPase from importin. The cycle can then start again. 

House crickets are insects that you can generally find anywhere outside. They have a simple eye, with one lens, as well as separate compound eyes, which have multiple lenses. Each cricket has a pair of palps near the mouth, as well as a long pair of antennae. On the dorsal side of the cricket are two pairs of wings, the hind wings and the fore wings. By rubbing these wings together, crickets can make chirping sounds due to the varying textures on the wings, but only male crickets can chirp. Another difference between male and female crickets is that only females have an ovipositor that projects from the tip of their abdomen. The ovipositor is used by the female to deposit eggs an is located between two cerci, paired appendages on the hind end of both male and female crickets. 

There are many possible explanations for the differences between Figure 1 and Figure 2. The orientation and placement of the images within the figures were different. I did not specify the exact location of each panel within my original scientific figure, Figure 1. I also did not mention labeling each panel, A, B and C, so that may explain the lack of labels within Figure 2. The arrows of each figure also differed in color and placement. This may be due to the fact that I created one of the arrows, the white one in Figure 1, on a different software than the usual editing software, Inkscape. I did not include the fact that I did this in my methods description. 

In the first image, panel A in Figure 1, the original and replicate look differently. This may be due to the fact that the replicate camera was held closer to the leaf than I had originally, or perhaps the student zoomed in their camera to capture the photo while I kept mine zoomed out. The difference in phytophagy spots and leaf shape may be because different leaves were used. It could also be because the replicated photo was taken over a week after my original photo. The leaf could have decomposed slightly or been weathered more during that time, explaining the brown spots on the leaf in Figure 2.