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Our final project for Writing in biology fall 2019 was chosen to be: Lichen as bioindicators of air pollution in Amherst, Massachusetts
Lichens can be used as bioindicators of airborne pollution either via morphological changes based on pollutant accumulation or by the diversity of lichens in an area. Measures of air pollution using lichens as bioindicators have yet to be done in Amherst, Massachusetts. We aim to compare air pollution levels in Amherst by comparing the number of lichen species in 4 x 4 m plots around two spots on the University of Massachusetts, Amherst campus: the more urbanised Campus Pond and the less urbanised Sylvan woods.

Materials:
2 measuring tapes, plastic flags, a clipboard with a piece of paper, a pencil, a compass and a metal grid and push pins.
2 predetermined locations near campus where lichen was found: Sylvan and campus pond
We used photos of specific lichen to aid in identification: Crustose, foliose, fruticose

Methods:
We marked a 4x4 meter plot of trees in the less urbanized sylvan area and the more urbanized campus pond. We estimated the plots with 4 plastic flags and a meter measuring tape. Once plotted, we used the 100 metal grid plot and recorded the amount of lichen species present on the north-facing side of included trees, 1 meter up from the bottom of the trees. We used a push pin as a placeholder for the 1 meter mark, and recorded the number of species on the clipboard for each trial with the grid until we reached the top of the meter.

The presence of artificial light in particular, during the dark sequence of the biological rhythm, has suggested a negative relationship between exposure of light and effect on our sensory input, which in turn, directly affects behavior. In diurnal vertebrates such as human beings, constant illumination throughout sleep, (the least physically active time of the 24 hour cycle) inhibits the production of melatonin, potentially leading to cognitive dysfunction and behavioral changes due to stress, and ultimately anxiety from failure to reorient to the change in the environment.

This information posed the pressing question of whether organisms on the opposite side of the spectrum, nocturnal invertebrates, are also disturbed by the essence of light during the evening: where they are most active. Increasing evidence suggests that they are, specifically in crickets, where levels of overall activity decreased with lifetime subjection to light pollution. For this reason, house crickets, or Acheta domesticus, were the focal point of this study, with the objective to continue analysis on whether artificial light during the dark cycle affects activity, this time in shorter periods, to test the frequency of mating behaviors.

Artificial light, or light pollution, is a major topic of concern for a variety of species, especially those who are nocturnal, and spend most of their time in the dark. As earth becomes more and more populated by humans, many things are changing, including habitats, ecosystems, and overall activity of so many animals. A key physiological process found in many animals, humans, and even plants that can be affected by changes in light, is the circadian rhythm. Circadian rhythms are the internal clocks that regulate both physiological and behavioral responses to the environment. Productivity in both humans and animal is heavily influenced by these rhythms, and sort of disruption of rhythm, say, from artificial light, could affect an animal’s ability to function, which would have negative impacts on behavior (Moore-Ede et al.,1982).

The tobacco industry also lobbies and hijacks legislative processes, to make sure they will not be at risk of getting sued by any buyer. The industries uses front groups  to gain access to policy makers and provide ready to use legislative proposals, causing them barely any issues with the law. In an example in 2017, the United Kingdom Fraud Office opened an investigation to British American Tobacco involvement in bribing policymakers in at least 4 African Countries; Burundi, Comoros, Kenya and Rwandaonce these legislations are passed, the industry may or may not disobey the rules, in the illicit cigarette trade, through illegal channels, but it is hard to confirm this.. Lastly, they manipulate public relations to make buyers think that they are good Samaritans by thinking about society, when really they only care about what is entering the company’s pocket. For example, when new tobacco control policies are on the agenda, the image of a good “corporate citizen” redirects attention away from the dire consequences of smoking

There is a new drug developed by a therapeutical company that targets sickle cell disease. This new drug, that will be sold under the name of Oxybryta, will cost $125,000 a year. Oxybryta will be the first drug to specifically target the root cause of the sickling cell. Sickle cell disease originated in Africa that prematurely kills 50-90% of the millions born with this disease. Hemoglobin in people with this disease aggregate to from rock hard rods that give them the sickle shape. These sickle cells then block blood vessels and triggers intense pain. The sickle cells are also prone to shattering. These problems lead to kidney failure and often early death. 

In the United States, there is a high prevelance of breast cancer among women.  What makes women in the United States so vunerable to breast cancer.  Evolutionary medicine has been studying the correlation between the number of menstral cycles with incidence of breast cancer in the population.  Since our early ancestors are not around to see how many times they menstrated, hunting and gathering tribes are used as a modern example of out EEA population.  In these societies, the women only menstrate and average of 92 times in their life while women in the United States will menstrate on average over 400 times in their life.  Breast tissue is not fully matured until a women become pregant.  As part of menstral cycle, the breast tissue will divide via mitosis and expand in the hope the women gets pregant and the breasts will fully mature.  When the women menstrates, the breasts go back to the premature state.  It is theorized that since women in the United States menstrate more, the cells in their breasts will divide more and leave them more vunerable to developing cancerous cells later in life as the more a cell divides, the greater the risk of mutation is.  Women in the hunting and gathering tribes have a later first menarche, longer menstral intervals and longer lactation periods, all of which factor into menstrating less in their life.  In the United States, birth control is used by a majority of women to prevent pregancy as well as regulate their menstral cycle.  Despite the risks associated with birth control, it is still being used therefore it may be beneficial to use birth control to regulate periods and allow for women to menstrate less.  This would lead to less divisions in the breast tissue and possibly less incidence of breast cancer.

In the United States, there is a high prevelance of breast cancer among women.  What makes women in the United States so vunerable to breast cancer.  Evolutionary medicine has been studying the correlation between the number of menstral cycles with incidence of breast cancer in the population.  Since our early ancestors are not around to see how many times they menstrated, hunting and gathering tribes are used as a modern example of out EEA population.  In these societies, the women only menstrate and average of 92 times in their life while women in the United States will menstrate on average over 400 times in their life.  Breast tissue is not fully matured until a women become pregant.  As part of menstral cycle, the breast tissue will divide via mitosis and expand in the hope the women gets pregant and the breasts will fully mature.  When the women menstrates, the breasts go back to the premature state.  It is theorized that since women in the United States menstrate more, the cells in their breasts will divide more and leave them more vunerable to developing cancerous cells later in life as the more a cell divides, the greater the risk of mutation is.  Women in the hunting and gathering tribes have a later first menarche, longer menstral intervals and longer lactation periods, all of which factor into menstrating less in their life.  In the United States, birth control is used by a majority of women to prevent pregancy as well as regulate their menstral cycle.  Despite the risks associated with birth control, it is still being used therefore it may be beneficial to use birth control to regulate periods and allow for women to menstrate less.  This would lead to less divisions in the breast tissue and possibly less incidence of breast cancer.

For the most part, DNA is found in the B-DNA form.  This means the DNA is forming a right handed helical structure with 10 base pairs per turn.  There are other types of DNA like A-DNA and Z-DNA which can be found in certain conditions.  A-DNA is right handed and has 11 base pairs per turn.  This can be found in places of low humidity.  Z-DNA is a left handed helical structure with 12 base pairs per turn.  This condition is favored in cytosine and guanine rich sequences in a high salt environment.  In addition, Z-DNA occurs in cytosine methylated regions in a low salt environment.  Another condition that DNA has been found in nature is a triple helix.  In this case, a synthetic piece of DNA inserts itself into the major groove of the naturally occuring DNA.  It is sequence specific and certain protiens have been discovered which recognize the triple DNA helix.